Amazon River
Amazon River Rio Amazonas | |
---|---|
Arequipa Region, Peru | |
• coordinates | 15°31′04″S 71°41′37″W / 15.51778°S 71.69361°W |
• elevation | 5,220 m (17,130 ft) |
Mouth | Atlantic Ocean |
• location | Brazil |
• coordinates | 0°42′28″N 50°5′22″W / 0.70778°N 50.08944°W[1] |
Length | 3,750 km (2,330 mi)[2]
(Amazon–Ucayali–Tambo–Ené– Apurimac 6,400 km (4,000 mi) to 6,500 km (4,000 mi)[n 1] (Amazon–Marañón 5,700 km (3,500 mi)[2] |
Basin size | 7,000,000 km2 (2,700,000 sq mi)[3] 6,743,000 km2 (2,603,000 sq mi) |
Discharge | |
• location | Atlantic Ocean (near mouth) |
• average | 215,000 m3/s (7,600,000 cu ft/s)–230,000 m3/s (8,100,000 cu ft/s)(Period: 2003–2015)[11][12] (Period: 1972–2003)206,000 m3/s (7,300,000 cu ft/s)(Basin size: 5,956,000 km2 (2,300,000 sq mi)[13] |
• minimum | 180,000 m3/s (6,400,000 cu ft/s) |
• maximum | 340,000 m3/s (12,000,000 cu ft/s) |
Discharge | |
• location | Amazon Delta (Amazon/Tocantins/Pará) |
• average | 230,000 m3/s (8,100,000 cu ft/s)[6] (Basin size: 6,743,000 km2 (2,603,000 sq mi)[6] to 7,000,000 km2 (2,700,000 sq mi)[3] |
Discharge | |
• location | Santarém (704 km upstream of mouth; Basin size: 5,232,764 km2 (2,020,381 sq mi) |
• average | (Period: 1971–2000)191,624 m3/s (6,767,100 cu ft/s)[15] |
• minimum | (Period: 1998–2023)82,160 m3/s (2,901,000 cu ft/s)[14] 46,130 m3/s (1,629,000 cu ft/s)(Year: 2023)[14] |
• maximum | (Period: 1998–2023)298,400 m3/s (10,540,000 cu ft/s)[14] (Year: 2022)406,000 m3/s (14,300,000 cu ft/s)[14] |
Discharge | |
• location | Óbidos (800 km upstream of mouth – Basin size: 4,704,076 km2 (1,816,254 sq mi)) |
• average | (Period: 1903–2023)165,829.6 m3/s (5,856,220 cu ft/s)[17]
(Period: 1971–2000)173,272.6 m3/s (6,119,060 cu ft/s)[15] (Period: 1928–1996)176,177 m3/s (6,221,600 cu ft/s)[16] (Period: 01/01/1997–31/12/2015)178,193.9 m3/s (6,292,860 cu ft/s)[18] |
• minimum | (Period: 1928–1996)75,602 m3/s (2,669,900 cu ft/s)[16] (Period: 1903–2023)95,000 m3/s (3,400,000 cu ft/s)[17] |
• maximum | (Period: 1928–1996)306,317 m3/s (10,817,500 cu ft/s)[16]
(Period: 1903–2023)260,000 m3/s (9,200,000 cu ft/s)[17] 394,000 m3/s (13,900,000 cu ft/s)(Year: 1953) |
Discharge | |
• location | Manacapuru, Solimões (Basin size: 2,147,736 km2 (829,246 sq mi) |
• average | (Period: 01/01/1997–31/12/2015) 105,720 m3/s (3,733,000 cu ft/s)[18] |
Basin features | |
Tributaries | |
• left |
The Amazon River (UK: /ˈæməzən/, US: /ˈæməzɒn/; Spanish: Río Amazonas, Portuguese: Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the longest or second-longest river system in the world, a title which is disputed with the Nile.[3][19][n 2]
The headwaters of the
The Amazon River has an average discharge of about 215,000–230,000 m3/s (7,600,000–8,100,000 cu ft/s)—approximately 6,591–7,570 km3 (1,581–1,816 cu mi) per year, greater than the next seven
Etymology
The Amazon was initially known by Europeans as the Marañón, and the Peruvian part of the river is still known by that name today. It later became known as Rio Amazonas in Spanish and Portuguese.
The name Rio Amazonas was reportedly given after native warriors attacked a 16th-century expedition by Francisco de Orellana. The warriors were led by women, reminding de Orellana of the Amazon warriors, a tribe of women warriors related to Iranian Scythians and Sarmatians[29][30] mentioned in Greek mythology. The word Amazon itself may be derived from the Iranian compound * ha-maz-an- "(one) fighting together"[31] or ethnonym * ha-mazan- "warriors", a word attested indirectly through a derivation, a denominal verb in Hesychius of Alexandria's gloss "ἁμαζακάραν· πολεμεῖν. Πέρσαι" ("hamazakaran: 'to make war' in Persian"), where it appears together with the Indo-Iranian root * kar- "make" (from which Sanskrit karma is also derived).[32]
Other scholars[who?] claim that the name is derived from the Tupi word amassona, meaning "boat destroyer".[33]
History
Geological history
Recent
Pre-Columbian era
During what many
Shell mounds were the earliest evidence of habitation; they represent piles of human refuse (waste) and are mainly dated between 7500 BC and 4000 BC. They are associated with ceramic age cultures; no preceramic shell mounds have been documented so far by archaeologists.[36] Artificial earth platforms for entire villages are the second type of mounds. They are best represented by the Marajoara culture. Figurative mounds are the most recent types of occupation.
There is ample evidence that the areas surrounding the Amazon River were home to complex and large-scale indigenous societies, mainly
Many indigenous tribes engaged in constant
Arrival of Europeans
In March 1500, Spanish conquistador Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was the first documented European to sail up the Amazon River.[41] Pinzón called the stream Río Santa María del Mar Dulce, later shortened to Mar Dulce, literally, sweet sea, because of its freshwater pushing out into the ocean. Another Spanish explorer, Francisco de Orellana, was the first European to travel from the origins of the upstream river basins, situated in the Andes, to the mouth of the river. In this journey, Orellana baptized some of the affluents of the Amazonas like Rio Negro, Napo and Jurua. The name Amazonas is thought to be taken from the native warriors that attacked this expedition, mostly women, that reminded De Orellana of the mythical female Amazon warriors from the ancient Hellenic culture in Greece (see also Origin of the name).
Exploration
Gonzalo Pizarro set off in 1541 to explore east of Quito into the South American interior in search of El Dorado, the "city of gold" and La Canela, the "valley of cinnamon".[42] He was accompanied by his second-in-command Francisco de Orellana. After 170 km (106 mi), the Coca River joined the Napo River (at a point now known as Puerto Francisco de Orellana); the party stopped for a few weeks to build a boat just upriver from this confluence. They continued downriver through an uninhabited area, where they could not find food. Orellana offered and was ordered to follow the Napo River, then known as Río de la Canela ("Cinnamon River"), and return with food for the party. Based on intelligence received from a captive native chief named Delicola, they expected to find food within a few days downriver by ascending another river to the north.
De Orellana took about 57 men, the boat, and some canoes and left Pizarro's troops on 26 December 1541. However, De Orellana missed the confluence (probably with the Aguarico) where he was searching supplies for his men. By the time he and his men reached another village, many of them were sick from hunger and eating "noxious plants", and near death. Seven men died in that village. His men threatened to mutiny if the expedition turned back to attempt to rejoin Pizarro, the party being over 100 leagues downstream at this point. He accepted to change the purpose of the expedition to discover new lands in the name of the king of Spain, and the men built a larger boat in which to navigate downstream. After a journey of 600 km (370 mi) down the Napo River, they reached a further major confluence, at a point near modern Iquitos, and then followed the upper Amazon, now known as the Solimões, for a further 1,200 km (746 mi) to its confluence with the Rio Negro (near modern Manaus), which they reached on 3 June 1542.
Regarding the initial mission of finding cinnamon, Pizarro reported to the king that they had found cinnamon trees, but that they could not be profitably harvested. True cinnamon (Cinnamomum Verum) is not native to South America. Other related cinnamon-containing plants (of the family Lauraceae) are fairly common in that part of the Amazon and Pizarro probably saw some of these. The expedition reached the mouth of the Amazon on 24 August 1542, demonstrating the practical navigability of the Great River.
In 1560, another Spanish
Portuguese explorer Pedro Teixeira was the first European to travel up the entire river. He arrived in Quito in 1637, and returned via the same route.[43]
From 1648 to 1652, Portuguese Brazilian
In what is currently in Brazil, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela, several
Scientific exploration
Early scientific, zoological, and botanical exploration of the Amazon River and basin took place from the 18th century through the first half of the 19th century.
- Charles Marie de La Condamine explored the river in 1743.[45]
- Alexander von Humboldt, 1799–1804
- Johann Baptist von Spix and Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, 1817–1820
- Georg von Langsdorff, 1826–1828
- Henry Walter Bates and Alfred Russel Wallace, 1848–1859
- Richard Spruce, 1849–1864
Post-colonial exploitation and settlement
The
The population of the Brazilian portion of the Amazon basin in 1850 was perhaps 300,000, of whom about 175,000 were Europeans and 25,000 were slaves. The Brazilian Amazon's principal commercial city, Pará (now Belém), had from 10,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, including slaves. The town of Manáos, now Manaus, at the mouth of the Rio Negro, had a population between 1,000 and 1,500. All the remaining villages, as far up as Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier of Peru, were relatively small.[47]
On 6 September 1850, Emperor
At first, navigation was principally confined to the main river; and even in 1857 a modification of the government contract only obliged the company to a monthly service between Pará and Manaus, with steamers of 200 tons cargo capacity, a second line to make six round voyages a year between Manaus and Tabatinga, and a third, two trips a month between Pará and Cametá.[47] This was the first step in opening up the vast interior.
The success of the venture called attention to the opportunities for economic exploitation of the Amazon, and a second company soon opened commerce on the Madeira, Purús, and Negro; a third established a line between Pará and Manaus, and a fourth found it profitable to navigate some of the smaller streams. In that same period, the Amazonas Company was increasing its fleet. Meanwhile, private individuals were building and running small steam craft of their own on the main river as well as on many of its tributaries.[47]
On 31 July 1867, the government of Brazil, constantly pressed by the maritime powers and by the countries encircling the
Thanks in part to the
The first direct foreign trade with Manaus commenced around 1874. Local trade along the river was carried on by the English successors to the Amazonas Company—the Amazon Steam Navigation Company—as well as numerous small steamboats, belonging to companies and firms engaged in the rubber trade, navigating the Negro, Madeira, Purús, and many other tributaries,[47] such as the Marañón, to ports as distant as Nauta, Peru.
By the turn of the 20th century, the exports of the Amazon basin were
20th-century development
Since colonial times, the Portuguese portion of the Amazon basin has remained a land largely undeveloped by agriculture and occupied by indigenous people who survived the arrival of European diseases.
Four centuries after the European discovery of the Amazon river, the total cultivated area in its basin was probably less than 65 km2 (25 sq mi), excluding the limited and crudely cultivated areas among the mountains at its extreme headwaters.[51] This situation changed dramatically during the 20th century.
Wary of foreign exploitation of the nation's resources, Brazilian governments in the 1940s set out to develop the interior, away from the seaboard where foreigners owned large tracts of land. The original architect of this expansion was president Getúlio Vargas, with the demand for rubber from the Allied forces in World War II providing funding for the drive.
In the 1960s, economic exploitation of the Amazon basin was seen as a way to fuel the "economic miracle" occurring at the time. This resulted in the development of "Operation Amazon", an economic development project that brought large-scale agriculture and ranching to Amazonia. This was done through a combination of credit and fiscal incentives.[52]
However, in the 1970s the government took a new approach with the National Integration Program (PIN). A large-scale colonization program saw families from northeastern Brazil relocated to the "land without people" in the Amazon Basin. This was done in conjunction with infrastructure projects mainly the Trans-Amazonian Highway (Transamazônica).[52]
The Trans-Amazonian Highway's three pioneering highways were completed within ten years but never fulfilled their promise. Large portions of the Trans-Amazonian and its accessory roads, such as BR-317 (Manaus-Porto Velho), are derelict and impassable in the rainy season. Small towns and villages are scattered across the forest, and because its vegetation is so dense, some remote areas are still unexplored.
Many settlements grew along the road from Brasília to Belém with the highway and National Integration Program, however, the program failed as the settlers were unequipped to live in the delicate rainforest ecosystem. This, although the government believed it could sustain millions, instead could sustain very few.[53]
With a population of 1.9 million people in 2014, Manaus is the largest city on the Amazon. Manaus alone makes up approximately 50% of the population of the largest Brazilian state of
Although the Amazon river remains undammed, around 412 dams are in operation in the Amazon's tributary rivers. Of these 412 dams, 151 are constructed over six of the main tributary rivers that drain into the Amazon.[55] Since only 4% of the Amazon's hydropower potential has been developed in countries like Brazil,[56] more damming projects are underway and hundreds more are planned.[57] After witnessing the negative effects of environmental degradation, sedimentation, navigation and flood control caused by the Three Gorges Dam in the Yangtze River,[58] scientists are worried that constructing more dams in the Amazon will harm its biodiversity in the same way by "blocking fish-spawning runs, reducing the flows of vital oil nutrients and clearing forests".[57] Damming the Amazon River could potentially bring about the "end of free flowing rivers" and contribute to an "ecosystem collapse" that will cause major social and environmental problems.[55]
Course
Origins
The most distant source of the Amazon was thought to be in the Apurímac river drainage for nearly a century. Such studies continued to be published even as recently as 1996,
A 2014 study by Americans James Contos and Nicolas Tripcevich in
After about 700 km (430 mi), the Apurímac then joins Río Mantaro to form the Ene, which joins the Perene to form the Tambo, which joins the Urubamba River to form the Ucayali. After the confluence of Apurímac and Ucayali, the river leaves Andean terrain and is surrounded by floodplain. From this point to the confluence of the Ucayali and the Marañón, some 1,600 km (990 mi), the forested banks are just above the water and are inundated long before the river attains its maximum flood stage.[47] The low river banks are interrupted by only a few hills, and the river enters the enormous Amazon rainforest.
The Upper Amazon or Solimões
Although the Ucayali–Marañón confluence is the point at which most geographers place the beginning of the Amazon River proper, in Brazil the river is known at this point as the
The Amazon proper runs mostly through Brazil and Peru, and is part of the border between Colombia and Peru. It has a series of major tributaries in
.At some points, the river divides into
From the town of Canaria at the great bend of the Amazon to the Negro, vast areas of land are submerged at high water, above which only the upper part of the trees of the sombre forests appear. Near the mouth of the Rio Negro to Serpa, nearly opposite the river Madeira, the banks of the Amazon are low, until approaching Manaus, they rise to become rolling hills.[47]
The Lower Amazon
The Lower Amazon begins where the darkly colored waters of the Rio Negro meets the sandy-colored
Only about 10% of the Amazon's water enters downstream of Óbidos, very little of which is from the northern slope of the valley. The drainage area of the Amazon basin above Óbidos city is about 5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi), and, below, only about 1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi) (around 20%), exclusive of the 1,400,000 km2 (540,000 sq mi) of the Tocantins basin.
In the lower reaches of the river, the north bank consists of a series of steep, table-topped hills extending for about 240 km (150 mi) from opposite the mouth of the Xingu as far as
On the south bank, above the Xingu, a line of low bluffs bordering the floodplain extends nearly to
Mouth
Belém is the major city and port at the mouth of the river at the Atlantic Ocean. The definition of where exactly the mouth of the Amazon is located, and how wide it is, is a matter of dispute, because of the area's peculiar geography. The Pará and the Amazon are connected by a series of river channels called furos near the town of Breves; between them lies Marajó, the world's largest combined river/sea island.
If the Pará river and the Marajó island ocean frontage are included, the Amazon estuary is some 325 km (202 mi) wide.[65] In this case, the width of the mouth of the river is usually measured from Cabo Norte, the cape located straight east of Pracuúba in the Brazilian state of Amapá, to Ponta da Tijoca near the town of Curuçá, in the state of Pará.
A more conservative measurement excluding the Pará river estuary, from the mouth of the Araguari River to Ponta do Navio on the northern coast of Marajó, would still give the mouth of the Amazon a width of over 180 km (112 mi). If only the river's main channel is considered, between the islands of Curuá (state of Amapá) and Jurupari (state of Pará), the width falls to about 15 km (9.3 mi).
The plume generated by the river's discharge covers up to 1.3 million km2 and is responsible for muddy bottoms influencing a wide area of the tropical north Atlantic in terms of salinity, pH, light penetration, and sedimentation.[26]
Lack of bridges
There are no
Dispute regarding length
While debate as to whether the Amazon or
In July 2008, the Brazilian Institute for Space Research (INPE) published a news article on their webpage, claiming that the Amazon River was 140 km (87 mi) longer than the Nile. The Amazon's length was calculated as 6,992 km (4,345 mi), taking the Apacheta Creek as its source. Using the same techniques, the length of the Nile was calculated as 6,853 km (4,258 mi), which is longer than previous estimates but still shorter than the Amazon. The results were reached by measuring the Amazon downstream to the beginning of the tidal estuary of Canal do Sul and then, after a sharp turn back, following tidal canals surrounding the isle of Marajó and finally including the marine waters of the Río Pará bay in its entire length.[61][23] According to an earlier article on the webpage of the National Geographic, the Amazon's length was calculated as 6,800 km (4,200 mi) by a Brazilian scientist. In June 2007, Guido Gelli, director of science at the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), told London's Telegraph Newspaper that it could be considered that the Amazon was the longest river in the world.[67] However, according to the above sources, none of the two results was published, and questions were raised about the researchers' methodology. In 2009, a peer-reviewed article, was published, concluding that the Nile is longer than the Amazon by stating a length of 7,088 km (4,404 mi) for the Nile and 6,575 km (4,086 mi) for the Amazon, measured by using a combination of satellite image analysis and field investigations to the source regions.[4] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the final length of the Amazon remains open to interpretation and continued debate.[3][23]
Watershed
The Amazon basin, the largest in the world, covers about 40% of South America, an area of approximately 7,050,000 km2 (2,720,000 sq mi). It drains from west to east, from Iquitos in Peru, across Brazil to the Atlantic. It gathers its waters from 5 degrees north latitude to 20 degrees south latitude. Its most remote sources are found on the inter-Andean plateau, just a short distance from the Pacific Ocean.[68]
The Amazon River and its tributaries are characterised by extensive forested areas that become flooded every rainy season. Every year, the river rises more than 9 m (30 ft), flooding the surrounding forests, known as várzea ("flooded forests"). The Amazon's flooded forests are the most extensive example of this habitat type in the world.[69] In an average dry season, 110,000 km2 (42,000 sq mi) of land are water-covered, while in the wet season, the flooded area of the Amazon basin rises to 350,000 km2 (140,000 sq mi).[65]
The quantity of water released by the Amazon to the Atlantic Ocean is enormous: up to 300,000 m3/s (11,000,000 cu ft/s) in the rainy season, with an average of 209,000 m3/s (7,400,000 cu ft/s) from 1973 to 1990.
The Atlantic has sufficient wave and tidal energy to carry most of the Amazon's sediments out to sea, thus the Amazon does not form a true delta. The great deltas of the world are all in relatively protected bodies of water, while the Amazon empties directly into the turbulent Atlantic.[25]
There is a natural water union between the Amazon and the Orinoco basins, the so-called Casiquiare canal. The Casiquiare is a river distributary of the upper Orinoco, which flows southward into the Rio Negro, which in turn flows into the Amazon. The Casiquiare is the largest river on earth that links two major river systems, a so-called bifurcation.
Discharge
Average discharge at the estuary; Period from 2003 to 2015: 7,200 km3/a (230,000 m3/s)[71][72]
Year | (km3) | (m3/s) | Year | (km3) | (m3/s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2003 | 6,470 | 205,000 | 2010 | 6,464 | 205,000 |
2004 | 6,747 | 214,000 | 2011 | 7,378 | 234,000 |
2005 | 6,522 | 207,000 | 2012 | 7,513 | 238,000 |
2006 | 7,829 | 248,000 | 2013 | 7,288 | 231,000 |
2007 | 7,133 | 226,000 | 2014 | 7,674 | 243,000 |
2008 | 7,725 | 245,000 | 2015 | 6,657 | 211,000 |
2009 | 8,200 | 260,000 |
Average discharge at Óbidos gauge station; Period from 1969 to 2018: 5,520 km3/a (175,000 m3/s)[71][72]
Year | (km3) | (m3/s) | Year | (km3) | (m3/s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1969 | 4,813 | 152,500 | 1994 | 6,184 | 196,000 |
1970 | 5,187 | 164,400 | 1995 | 4,887 | 154,900 |
1971 | 5,810 | 184,100 | 1996 | 5,685 | 180,300 |
1972 | 5,735 | 181,700 | 1997 | 5,336 | 169,200 |
1973 | 5,723 | 181,350 | 1998 | 4,713 | 149,400 |
1974 | 6,084 | 192,800 | 1999 | 5,860 | 185,100 |
1975 | 6,122 | 194,000 | 2000 | 5,735 | 181,800 |
1976 | 5,885 | 186,500 | 2001 | 5,536 | 175,500 |
1977 | 5,561 | 176,200 | 2002 | 5,598 | 177,500 |
1978 | 5,660 | 179,400 | 2003 | 5,387 | 170,800 |
1979 | 5,350 | 169,500 | 2004 | 5,207 | 165,100 |
1980 | 4,563 | 144,600 | 2005 | 5,104 | 161,800 |
1981 | 4,838 | 153,300 | 2006 | 5,825 | 184,700 |
1982 | 5,760 | 182,500 | 2007 | 5,490 | 174,100 |
1983 | 4,538 | 143,800 | 2008 | 6,090 | 193,000 |
1984 | 5,536 | 175,400 | 2009 | 6,264 | 198,500 |
1985 | 5,187 | 164,400 | 2010 | 5,233 | 165,800 |
1986 | 5,785 | 183,300 | 2011 | 5,568 | 176,400 |
1987 | 5,261 | 166,700 | 2012 | 5,877 | 186,200 |
1988 | 5,286 | 167,500 | 2013 | 6,083 | 192,800 |
1989 | 6,284 | 199,100 | 2014 | 6,212 | 196,850 |
1990 | 5,324 | 168,700 | 2015 | 5,890 | 186,650 |
1991 | 5,424 | 171,900 | 2016 | 5,025 | 159,200 |
1992 | 4,390 | 139,100 | 2017 | 5,710 | 180,900 |
1993 | 5,710 | 180,900 | 2018 | 5,685 | 180,150 |
Average discharge (Q - 173,000 m3/s) and sediment load (S - 754 x 106 ton/year) at Óbidos gauge station (period from 1996 to 2007)[73]
Year | Q | S | Year | Q | S |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1996 | 180,300 | 672 | 2002 | 177,500 | 802 |
1997 | 169,200 | 691 | 2003 | 170,800 | 832 |
1998 | 149,400 | 652 | 2004 | 165,100 | 807 |
1999 | 185,800 | 732 | 2005 | 161,800 | 797 |
2000 | 181,800 | 692 | 2006 | 184,700 | 742 |
2001 | 175,500 | 787 | 2007 | 174,100 | 842 |
Average, minimum and maximum discharge at Itacoatiara and Santarém (Lower Amazon). Period from 1998/01/01 to 2022/12/31 (Source: The Flood Observatory):[74][14]
Year | Discharge (m3/s) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Mean | Max | Min | Mean | Max | |
Itacoatiara | Santarém | |||||
1998 | 41,312 | 139,002 | 240,396 | 69,202 | 175,218 | 278,306 |
1999 | 64,130 | 171,662 | 288,869 | 73,921 | 182,266 | 270,080 |
2000 | 52,870 | 161,345 | 261,176 | 73,306 | 171,899 | 275,060 |
2001 | 30,670 | 157,286 | 256,627 | 67,300 | 173,517 | 268,820 |
2002 | 67,979 | 164,171 | 252,425 | 92,711 | 207,186 | 296,805 |
2003 | 82,556 | 149,274 | 228,998 | 100,473 | 182,767 | 252,626 |
2004 | 66,183 | 139,926 | 223,929 | 100,986 | 184,880 | 265,644 |
2005 | 57,598 | 145,002 | 258,383 | 67,464 | 172,411 | 280,340 |
2006 | 61,265 | 168,975 | 268,108 | 91,126 | 192,500 | 301,860 |
2007 | 74,679 | 161,393 | 238,839 | 73,256 | 192,715 | 309,478 |
2008 | 71,572 | 168,065 | 259,841 | 101,146 | 198,128 | 316,669 |
2009 | 59,298 | 166,100 | 275,544 | 76,598 | 204,920 | 303,192 |
2010 | 53,715 | 128,035 | 215,638 | 72,101 | 172,255 | 255,208 |
2011 | 42,192 | 129,710 | 230,293 | 65,803 | 155,030 | 256,798 |
2012 | 29,489 | 172,103 | 291,537 | 50,070 | 194,883 | 323,680 |
2013 | 51,341 | 172,201 | 286,872 | 55,108 | 206,295 | 305,526 |
2014 | 85,599 | 192,462 | 324,191 | 151,997 | 235,390 | 338,905 |
2015 | 66,094 | 221,843 | 339,832 | 70,119 | 261,580 | 378,767 |
2016 | 41,063 | 167,746 | 311,494 | 69,995 | 230,788 | 367,296 |
2017 | 60,218 | 205,382 | 329,771 | 104,111 | 223,193 | 352,935 |
2018 | 65,629 | 202,838 | 316,291 | 95,376 | 262,946 | 386,022 |
2019 | 96,549 | 227,078 | 340,215 | 96,260 | 260,664 | 382,840 |
2020 | 44,698 | 214,586 | 352,671 | 72,955 | 234,725 | 388,213 |
2021 | 85,862 | 236,885 | 354,795 | 94,903 | 262,264 | 376,740 |
2022 | 56,758 | 214,763 | 337,412 | 101,693 | 259,902 | 405,999 |
2023 | 38,496 | 173,676 | 304,336 | 46,130 | 217,551 | 370,109 |
Average | 59,532 | 175,058 | 284,173 | 82,158 | 208,303 | 298,444 |
Flooding
Not all of the Amazon's tributaries flood at the same time of the year. Many branches begin flooding in November and might continue to rise until June. The rise of the Rio Negro starts in February or March and begins to recede in June. The Madeira River rises and falls two months earlier than most of the rest of the Amazon river.
The depth of the Amazon between
The main river is navigable for large ocean steamers to Manaus, 1,500 km (930 mi) upriver from the mouth. Smaller ocean vessels below 9000 tons and with less than 5.5 m (18 ft) draft can reach as far as Iquitos, Peru, 3,600 km (2,200 mi) from the sea. Smaller riverboats can reach 780 km (480 mi) higher, as far as Achual Point. Beyond that, small boats frequently ascend to the Pongo de Manseriche, just above Achual Point in Peru.[63]
Annual flooding occurs in late northern latitude winter at high tide when the incoming waters of the Atlantic are funnelled into the Amazon delta. The resulting undular tidal bore is called the pororoca, with a leading wave that can be up to 7.6 m (25 ft) high and travel up to 800 km (500 mi) inland.[77][78]
Geology
The Amazon River originated as a transcontinental river in the Miocene epoch between 11.8 million and 11.3 million years ago and took its present shape approximately 2.4 million years ago in the Early Pleistocene.
The proto-Amazon during the
Eleven to ten million years ago, waters worked through the sandstone from the west and the Amazon began to flow eastward, leading to the emergence of the Amazon rainforest. During glacial periods, sea levels dropped and the great Amazon lake rapidly drained and became a river, which would eventually become the disputed world's longest, draining the most extensive area of rainforest on the planet.[80]
Paralleling the Amazon River is a large aquifer, dubbed the Hamza River, the discovery of which was made public in August 2011.[81]
Protected areas
Flora and fauna
Flora
Fauna
More than one-third of all known species in the world live in the Amazon rainforest.[86] It is the richest tropical forest in the world in terms of biodiversity.[87] In addition to thousands of species of fish, the river supports crabs, algae, and turtles.
Mammals
Along with the Orinoco, the Amazon is one of the main habitats of the boto, also known as the Amazon river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis). It is the largest species of river dolphin, and it can grow to lengths of up to 2.6 m (8.5 ft). The colour of its skin changes with age; young animals are gray, but become pink and then white as they mature. The dolphins use echolocation to navigate and hunt in the river's tricky depths.[88] The boto is the subject of a legend in Brazil about a dolphin that turns into a man and seduces maidens by the riverside.[89]
The tucuxi (Sotalia fluviatilis), also a dolphin species, is found both in the rivers of the Amazon basin and in the coastal waters of South America. The Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis), also known as "seacow", is found in the northern Amazon River basin and its tributaries. It is a mammal and a herbivore. Its population is limited to freshwater habitats, and, unlike other manatees, it does not venture into saltwater. It is classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.[90]
The Amazon and its tributaries are the main habitat of the giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis).[91] Sometimes known as the "river wolf," it is one of South America's top carnivores. Because of habitat destruction and hunting, its population has dramatically decreased. It is now listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which effectively bans international trade.[92]
Reptiles
The Anaconda is found in shallow waters in the Amazon basin. One of the world's largest species of snake, the anaconda spends most of its time in the water with just its nostrils above the surface. Species of caimans, that are related to alligators and other crocodilians, also inhabit the Amazon as do varieties of turtles.[93]
Birds
Fish
The Amazonian fish fauna is the centre of diversity for
The electric eel (Electrophorus electricus) and more than 100 species of electric fishes (Gymnotiformes) inhabit the Amazon basin. River stingrays (Potamotrygonidae) are also known. The bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas) has been reported 4,000 km (2,500 mi) up the Amazon River at Iquitos in Peru.[100]
Butterflies
Microbiota
Freshwater microbes are generally not very well known, even less so for a pristine ecosystem like the Amazon. Recently, metagenomics has provided answers to what kind of microbes inhabit the river.[101] The most important microbes in the Amazon River are Actinomycetota, Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria and Thermoproteota.
Challenges
The Amazon River serves as a vital lifeline for more than 47 million people in its basin and faces a multitude of challenges that threaten both its ecosystem and the indigenous communities dependent on its resources. According to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), the Yanomami, a tribe of approximately 29,000, struggles to preserve their land, culture, and traditional way of life due to encroaching illegal gold miners, malnutrition, and malaria. Meanwhile, in 2022, the region's severe drought, has led to a devastating increase in water temperatures, reaching 39.1 degrees Celsius, causing the tragic demise of 125 Amazon river dolphins.[102] This unfortunate event serves as a poignant marker of the deteriorating environmental conditions, indicating the increasing vulnerability of the river's ecosystem. In recent years, the Amazon River has experienced historically low water levels, the lowest in over a century. Brazil, the primary custodian of this invaluable natural resource, grapples with the challenges of mitigating the effects of this drought on communities and ecosystems, further emphasizing the urgency of sustainable environmental management and conservation efforts. [103]
Major tributaries
The Amazon has over 1,100 tributaries, twelve of which are over 1,500 km (930 mi) long.[104] Some of the more notable ones are:
List of major tributaries
The main river and tributaries are (sorted in order from the confluence of Ucayali and Marañón rivers to the mouth):
Left tributary | Right tributary | Length (km) | Basin size (km2) | Average discharge (m3/s) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Upper Amazon
(Confluence of Ucayali and Marañón rivers - Tabatinga) | ||||
Marañón | 2,112 | 364,873.4 | 16,708 | |
Ucayali | 2,738 | 353,729.3 | 13,630.1 | |
Tahuyo | 80 | 1,630 | 105.7 | |
Tamshiyaçu | 86.7 | 1,367.3 | 86.5 | |
Itaya | 213 | 2,668 | 161.4 | |
Nanay | 483 | 16,673.4 | 1,072.7 | |
Maniti | 198.7 | 2,573.6 | 180.4 | |
Napo | 1,075 | 103,307.8 | 7,147.8 | |
Apayaçu | 50 | 2,393.6 | 160.9 | |
Orosa | 95 | 3,506.8 | 234.3 | |
Ampiyaçu | 140 | 4,201.4 | 267.2 | |
Chichita | 48 | 1,314.2 | 87.7 | |
Cochiquinas | 49 | 2,362.7 | 150.2 | |
Santa Rosa | 45 | 1,678 | 101.5 | |
Cajocumal | 58 | 2,094.9 | 141.5 | |
Atacuari | 108 | 3,480.5 | 236.8 | |
Middle Amazon | ||||
Javary | 1,056 | 99,674.1 | 5,222.5 | |
Igarapé
Veneza |
943.9 | 58.3 | ||
Tacana | 541 | 35.5 | ||
Igarapé de
Belém |
1,299.9 | 85.4 | ||
Igarapé São
Jerônimo |
1,259.6 | 78.2 | ||
Jandiatuba | 520 | 14,890.4 | 980 | |
Igarapé
Acuruy |
2,462.1 | 127.1 | ||
Putumayo | 1,813 | 121,115.8 | 8,519.9 | |
Tonantins | 2,955.2 | 169.2 | ||
Jutai | 1,488 | 78,451.5 | 4,000 | |
Juruá | 3,283 | 190,573 | 6,662.1 | |
Uarini | 7,195.8 | 432.9 | ||
Japurá | 2,816 | 276,812 | 18,121.6 | |
Tefé | 571 | 24,375.5 | 1,190.4 | |
Caiambe | 2,650.1 | 90 | ||
Parana Copea | 10,532.3 | 423.8 | ||
Coari | 599 | 35,741.3 | 1,389.3 | |
Mamiá | 5,514 | 176.2 | ||
Badajos | 413 | 21,575 | 1,300 | |
Igarapé Miuá | 1,294.5 | 56.9 | ||
Purus | 3,382 | 378,762.4 | 11,206.9 | |
Paraná Arara | 1,915.7 | 78.2 | ||
Paraná
Manaquiri |
1,318.6 | 52.9 | ||
Manacapuru | 291 | 14,103 | 559.5 | |
Lower Amazon | ||||
Rio Negro
|
2,362 | 714,577.6 | 30,640.8 | |
Prêto da Eva | 3,039.5 | 110.8 | ||
Igapó-Açu | 500 | 45,994.4 | 1,676.5 | |
Madeira | 3,380 | 1,322,782.4 | 32,531.9 | |
Urubu | 430 | 13,892 | 459.8 | |
Uatumã | 701 | 67,920 | 2,290.8 | |
Canumã, | 400 | 127,116 | 4,804.4 | |
Nhamundá, | 744 | 150,032 | 4,127 | |
Curuá | 484 | 28,099 | 470.1 | |
Lago Grande
do Curuaí |
3,293.6 | 92.7 | ||
Tapajós
|
1,992 | 494,551.3 | 13,540 | |
Curuá-Una | 315 | 24,505 | 729.8 | |
Maicurú | 546 | 18,546 | 272.3 | |
Uruará | 4,610.2 | 104.8 | ||
Jauari | 5,851 | 108.3 | ||
Guajará | 4,243 | 105.6 | ||
Paru de Este | 731 | 39,289 | 970 | |
Xingu | 2,275 | 513,313.5 | 10,022.6 | |
Igarapé
Arumanduba |
1,819.9 | 50.8 | ||
Jari | 769 | 51,893 | 1,213.5 | |
Amazon Delta
(river mouth to Gurupá) | ||||
Braco do
Cajari |
4,732.4 | 157.1 | ||
Pará | 784 | 84,027 | 3,500.3 | |
Tocantins | 2,639 | 777,308 | 11,796 | |
Atuã | 2,769 | 119.8 | ||
Anajás | 300 | 24,082.5 | 948 | |
Mazagão | 1,250.2 | 44.4 | ||
Vila Nova | 5,383.8 | 180.8 | ||
Matapi | 2,487.4 | 81.7 | ||
Acará, | 400 | 87,389.5 | 2,550.7 | |
Arari | 1,523.6 | 80.2 | ||
Pedreira | 2,005 | 89.9 | ||
Paracauari | 1,390.3 | 67.9 | ||
Jupati | 724.2 | 32.6 |
List by length
- 6,400 km (4,000 mi)[3] (6,275 to 7,025 km (3,899 to 4,365 mi))[4] – Amazon, South America
- 3,250 km (2,019 mi) – Madeira, Bolivia/Brazil[110]
- 3,211 km (1,995 mi) – Purús, Peru/Brazil[111]
- 2,820 km (1,752 mi) – Japurá or Caquetá, Colombia/Brazil[112]
- 2,639 km (1,640 mi) – Tocantins, Brazil[113]
- 2,627 km (1,632 mi) – Araguaia, Brazil (tributary of Tocantins)[114]
- 2,400 km (1,500 mi) – Juruá, Peru/Brazil[115]
- 2,250 km (1,400 mi) – Rio Negro, Brazil/Venezuela/Colombia[116]
- 1,992 km (1,238 mi) – Tapajós, Brazil[117]
- 1,979 km (1,230 mi) – Xingu, Brazil[118]
- 1,900 km (1,181 mi) – Ucayali River, Peru[119]
- 1,749 km (1,087 mi) – Guaporé, Brazil/Bolivia (tributary of Madeira)[120]
- 1,575 km (979 mi) – Içá (Putumayo), Ecuador/Colombia/Peru
- 1,415 km (879 mi) – Marañón, Peru
- 1,370 km (851 mi) – Teles Pires, Brazil (tributary of Tapajós)
- 1,300 km (808 mi) – Iriri, Brazil (tributary of Xingu)
- 1,240 km (771 mi) – Juruena, Brazil (tributary of Tapajós)
- 1,130 km (702 mi) – Madre de Dios, Peru/Bolivia (tributary of Madeira)
- 1,100 km (684 mi) – Huallaga, Peru (tributary of Marañón)
List by inflow to the Amazon
Rank | Name | Average annual discharge (m^3/s) | % of Amazon |
---|---|---|---|
Amazon | 209,000 | 100% | |
1 | Madeira | 31,200 | 15% |
2 | Negro | 28,400 | 14% |
3 | Japurá | 18,620 | 9% |
4 | Marañón | 16,708 | 8% |
5 | Tapajós | 13,540 | 6% |
6 | Ucayali | 13,500 | 5% |
7 | Purus | 10,970 | 5% |
8 | Xingu | 9,680 | 5% |
9 | Putumayo | 8,760 | 4% |
10 | Juruá | 8,440 | 4% |
11 | Napo | 6,976 | 3% |
12 | Javari | 4,545 | 2% |
13 | Trombetas | 3,437 | 2% |
14 | Jutaí | 3,425 | 2% |
15 | Abacaxis | 2,930 | 2% |
16 | Uatumã | 2,190 | 1% |
See also
- Amazon natural region, in Colombia
- Peruvian Amazonia in Peru
- Nile
Notes
- ^ The length of the Amazon River is usually said to be "at least" 6,400 km (4,000 mi),[3] but reported values lie anywhere between 6,275 and 7,025 km (3,899 and 4,365 mi).[4] The length measurements of many rivers are only approximations and differ from each other because there are many factors that determine the calculated river length, such as the position of the geographical source and the mouth, the scale of measurement, and the length measuring techniques (for details see also
- ^ The Nile is usually said to be the longest river in the world, with a length of about 6,650 km,[20] and the Amazon the second longest river in the world, with a length of at least 6,400 km.[3] In 2007 and 2008, some scientists claimed that the Amazon has a length of 6,992 km and was longer than the Nile, whose length was calculated as 6,853 km.[21][22] A peer-reviewed article, published in 2009, states a length of 7,088 km for the Nile and 6,575 km for the Amazon, measured by using a combination of satellite image analysis and field investigations to the source regions.[4] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of 2020, the length of the Amazon remains open to interpretation and continued debate.[3][23]
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{{cite book}}
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Bibliography
- public domain: Church, George Earl (1911). "Amazon". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 783–90. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
- Garfield, Seth. In search of the Amazon: Brazil, the United States and the nature of a region (Duke University Press, 2013) online
- Hecht, Susanna, et al. "The Amazon in motion: Changing politics, development strategies, peoples, landscapes, and livelihoods." Amazon Assessment Report 2021, Part II (2021): ch 14 pp 1-65. online, with long bibliography
- Nugent, Stephen L. The rise and fall of the Amazon rubber industry: an historical anthropology (Routledge, 2017) online.
- Schulze, Frederik, and Georg Fischer. "Brazilian history as global history." Bulletin of Latin American Research 38.4 (2019): 408–422. online
- Wohl, Ellen (2011). The Amazon: Rivers of Blushing Dolphins. The University of Chicago Press.
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External links
- Information on the Amazon from Extreme Science
- A photographic journey up the Amazon River from its mouth to its source
- Amazon Alive: Light & Shadow documentary film about the Amazon river
- Amazon River Ecosystem
- Research on the influence of the Amazon River on the Atlantic Ocean at the University of Southern California
- Geographic data related to Amazon River at OpenStreetMap