Amchitka
This article cites its page references.(November 2020) ) |
Amchitka Underground Test Site | |
---|---|
Nuclear testing range | |
Site information | |
Operator | United States Department of Energy |
Status | Inactive |
Site history | |
In use | 1965–1971 |
Test information | |
Thermonuclear tests | 3 |
Remediation | 2001–2025 (DoE estimate) |
Amchitka (/æmˈtʃɪtkə/; Aleut: Amchixtax̂;[1][page needed]) is a volcanic, tectonically unstable and uninhabited island in the
Amchitka was populated for more than 2,500 years by the
Amchitka was selected by the
Geography
Amchitka is the southernmost of the Rat Islands group in the Aleutian Chain,[2] located between 51°21′N 178°37′E / 51.350°N 178.617°E and 51°39′N 179°29′E / 51.650°N 179.483°E.[5]: 3 It is bounded by the Bering Sea to the north and east, and the Pacific Ocean to the south and west.[5]: 3
The eastern part of the island is a lowland plateau, with isolated ponds
Amchitka has a maritime climate, often foggy and windswept, with cloud cover 98 percent of the time.[5]: 6 While temperatures are moderated by the ocean, storms are frequent.[7] Geologically, the island is volcanic, being a part of a small crustal block on the Aleutian Arc that is being torn apart by oblique subduction. It is "one of the least stable tectonic environments in the United States."[8]
Early history
The human history of Amchitka dates back at least 2,500 years, with the
Amchitka is said to have been seen and named St. Makarius by Vitus Bering in 1741, was sighted by Joseph Billings in 1790, and visited by Shishmaref in 1820.[11]
In 1783, Daikokuya Kōdayū and 15 Japanese castaways landed on Amchitka after drifting for seven months. The castaways were taken care of by Russian employees of Zhigarev and hunted with indigenous people. Six of the castaways died in three years.[12][page needed]
World War II and after
In June 1942, the Japanese occupied some of the western Aleutian islands, and hoped to occupy Amchitka.[13] Eager to remove the Japanese, the Joint Chiefs of Staff agreed to move quickly to regain the territory. American planners decided to build a series of airfields to the west of Umnak, from which bombers could attack the invading forces.[14]
The United States Army established bases at Adak and 13 other locations.[14] At the War Department's suggestion, an initial reconnaissance of Amchitka was carried out in September 1942, finding that it would be difficult to build an airstrip on the island.[13] Nevertheless, planners decided on December 13 that the airfield "had to be built" to prevent the Japanese from doing the same.[13] A further reconnaissance mission visited Amchitka from 17 to 19 December, and reported that a fighter strip could be built in two to three weeks, and a main airfield in three to four months.[13] The plan was approved and began in 1942.[13]
American forces made an unopposed landing on Amchitka on January 12, 1943. Despite facing difficult weather conditions and bombing from the Japanese, they made the airfield usable by February 16.[13] The Alaska Command was now 80 km (50 mi) away from their target, Kiska.[14] The military eventually built numerous buildings, roads, and a total of three airstrips on the island,[15] one of which would later be rebuilt and used by the Atomic Energy Commission in the late 1960s.[16]: 38 At its peak, the occupancy of Amchitka reached 15,000 troops.[15]
The
The site later hosted an Air Force White Alice Communications System from 1959 to 1961, and a temporary relay station in the 1960s and 1970s.[15] A prototype Relocatable Over-the-Horizon Radar system existed on Amchitka between 1991 and 1993 to conduct surveillance on Russia.[21]
Demographics
Amchitka first appeared as a census-designated place (CDP) on the 1990 U.S. Census with a population of 25.[22] This was the only time it appeared on the census, and the CDP was abolished in 2000.[23]
Nuclear testing
Plans for nuclear testing
With the pullout of military forces from Amchitka in 1950, the
In the late 1950s, scientists realized that improved
Together with the Atomic Energy Commission, the DoD began assessing Amchitka for atmospheric tests of very high-yield thermonuclear weapon effects as part of the Vela Uniform nuclear test program,[7] under Project Rufus, and later, Project Larkspur, using a pre-existing Vela Uniform program for underground testing as a cover. The Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963 ended investigation of Amchitka as a site for atmospheric testing, but work continued on underground test preparations.[27][28]
Long Shot test
To conduct the Vela Uniform test Long Shot,51°25′35.84″N 179°11′14.13″E / 51.4266222°N 179.1872583°E the Department of Defense occupied Amchitka from 1964 to 1966, with the AEC providing the device, measuring instruments, and scientific support.[19] The goal was "to determine the behavior and characteristics of seismic signals generated by nuclear detonations and to differentiate them from seismic signals generated by naturally occurring earthquakes."[29]
Although it would not be publicly announced until March 18, 1965, senior Alaskan officials were notified the previous February. After the devastating
Long Shot was detonated on October 29, 1965, and the yield was 80 kilotons (330 TJ). It was the first underground test in a remote area, and the first test managed by the DoD.[7] While there was no surface collapse,[5]: 9 tritium and krypton were found at the surface following the test;[5]: 9 [31] this was not made public until 1969.[31]
Milrow and Cannikin tests
Though performed as part of the Nuclear Weapons Testing Program,[29] "[the] purpose of the Milrow test was to test an island, not a weapon."[32] It was a "calibration shot", intended to produce data from which the impact of larger explosions could be predicted, and specifically, to determine whether the planned Cannikin detonation could be performed safely. Milrow was detonated on October 2, 1969 51°24′52.06″N 179°10′44.84″E / 51.4144611°N 179.1791222°E, with an approximate yield of 1 to 1.2 megatons (4.2–5.0 PJ).[5]: 8 [33]
The shockwave reached the surface with an acceleration of over 35 g (340 m/s2), causing a dome of the Earth's surface, approximately 3 km (2 mi) in radius, to rise about 5 meters (16 ft).[34] The blast "turned the surrounding sea to froth" and "forced geysers of mud and water from local streams and lakes 50 feet (15 m) into the air".[31] A "surface collapse feature", also known as a subsidence crater, was formed by material collapsing into the cavity formed by the explosion.[5]: 8
Cannikin was intended to test the design of the
Controversy
A few days after the Milrow test, the
The AEC considered the likelihood of the test triggering a severe earthquake "very unlikely", unless one was already imminent on a nearby fault, and considered a tsunami "even more unlikely".
In July 1971, a group called the Committee for Nuclear Responsibility filed suit against the AEC, asking the court to stop the test.[40] The suit was unsuccessful, with the Supreme Court denying the injunction by 4 votes to 3,[41] and Richard Nixon personally authorized the $200 million test, in spite of objections from Japan, Peru, and Sweden.[42] The Don't Make A Wave Committee chartered a boat, in which they had intended to sail to the island in protest, but due to postponement of the test and interference from the U.S. Coast Guard, they were unable to observe the test.[38]
Cannikin tested
Cannikin was detonated on November 6, 1971 51°28′13.20″N 179°6′40.75″E / 51.4703333°N 179.1113194°E, as the thirteenth test of the
1973 and beyond
The AEC withdrew from the island in 1973, though scientists continue to visit the island for monitoring purposes.[19] In 2001, the DoE returned to the site to remove environmental contamination. Drilling mud pits were stabilized by mixing with clean soil, covering with a polyester membrane, topped with soil and re-seeded.[15]
Concerns have been expressed that new fissures may be opening underground, allowing radioactive materials to leak into the ocean.[45] A 1996 Greenpeace study found that Cannikin was leaking both plutonium and americium into the environment.[31] In 2004, scientific divers from the University of Alaska Fairbanks collected shallow subtidal organisms[47] and reported that "There were no indications of any radioactive leakage, and all that was really wonderful news."[36] Similar findings are reported by a 2006 study, which found that levels of plutonium "were very small and not significant biologically".[48]
The Department of Energy continues to monitor the site as part of their remediation program. This is expected to continue until 2025, after which the site is intended to become a restricted access wildlife preserve.[49]
Name | Date (GMT)[50] | Location[51] | Yield[51] | Type[51] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Long Shot | 21:00, October 29, 1965 | 51°26′12″N 179°10′47″E / 51.43655°N 179.17976°E | 80 kt (330 TJ) | 2,343 ft (714 m) shaft |
Milrow | 22:06, October 2, 1969 | 51°24′56″N 179°10′48″E / 51.41559°N 179.17992°E | ~ 1 Mt (4.2 PJ) | 4,002 ft (1,220 m) shaft |
Cannikin | 22:00, November 6, 1971 | 51°28′11″N 179°06′12″E / 51.46961°N 179.10335°E | < 5 Mt (21 PJ) | 6,104 ft (1,860 m) shaft |
References
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency
- ISBN 1-55500-047-9.
- ^ a b Faller, S. H.; D. E. Farmer (1997). "Long Term Hydrological Monitoring Program" (PDF). Department of Energy. p. 1. EP A-402-R-98-002. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 30, 2007. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
- ^ a b "Alaskan blast fails to cause quakes, waves or radiation". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). Associated Press. November 7, 1971. p. 1.
- ^ a b "Nuclear test sites studied by scientists". The Bulletin. (Bend, Oregon). UPI. November 8, 1971. p. 1.
- ^ doi:10.2172/806659. DOE/NV/11508-51. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- ^ a b Powers, Charles W.; et al. "Amchitka Independent Assessment Science Plan" (PDF). CRESP Amchitka Oversight Committee. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 6, 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f Giblin, Michael O.; David C. Stahl; Jodi A. Bechtel. Surface remediation in the Aleutian Islands: A case study of Amchitka Island, Alaska (PDF). WM '02 Conference, Tucson AZ, February 24–28, 2002. Retrieved October 7, 2006.
- ^ Eichelberger, John; Jeff Freymueller; Graham Hill; Matt Patrick (March 2002). "Nuclear Stewardship: Lessons from a Not-So-Remote Island". GeoTimes. Archived from the original on September 1, 2003. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
- ^ Miller states "at least 9,000 years" (see Miller, Pam, "Nuclear Flashback")
- ^ "Federal Register: Notice of Inventory Completion: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, Anchorage, AK" (PDF). December 1, 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 5, 2008. Retrieved November 7, 2008.
- ^ Baker, Marcus (1902). Geographic Dictionary of Alaska (Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, no 187, Series F, Geography, 27). Washington: Government Printing Office. pp. 50, 73, 336.
- ISBN 4-00-430879-8
- ^ LCCN 62-60067. CMH 4–2. Archived from the originalon December 25, 2007. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- ^ a b c d MacGarrigle, George L. (October 2003). Aleutian Islands. The Campaigns of World War II. United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 72–6, paper, GPO S/N 008-029-00232-9. Archived from the original on March 17, 2014. Retrieved October 7, 2006.
- ^ a b c d "Amchitka, Alaska, Site Fact Sheet" (PDF). Department of Energy Office of Legacy Management. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 30, 2007. Retrieved October 7, 2006.
- ^ OSTI 4019027.
- ^ "Pre-1952 Historical Timeline". National Security Agency. Archived from the original on October 3, 2006. Retrieved October 7, 2006.
- ^ "Document Detail for IRISNUM= 00076530". airforcehistoryindex.org. Retrieved July 9, 2023.
- ^ )
- ^ "Document Detail for IRISNUM= 00496942". airforcehistoryindex.org. Retrieved July 9, 2023.
- ^ "AN/TPS-71 ROTHR (Relocatable Over-the-Horizon Radar)". Federation of American Scientists. June 29, 1999. Retrieved July 9, 2014.
- ^ "Summary Social, Economic, and Housing Characteristics" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. 1990. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 8, 2021.
- ^ "Alaska: 2000 Summary Population and Housing Characteristics" (PDF). 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 18, 2021. Retrieved October 14, 2019.
- ISBN 0-295-98255-1.
- ^ S2CID 110810982.
- ^ Van der Vink, Gregory E.; et al. (February 1994). Nuclear testing and nonproliferation: The role of seismology in deterring the development of nuclear weapons. The Iris Consortium. Archived from the original on September 7, 2006. Retrieved October 8, 2006.
- doi:10.2172/1046575.
- ^ Project Larkspur, Amchitka Island, Alaska, Investigations of Areas 1, 2, 3 and 4 (PDF) (Report). U.S. Army Engineer District, North Pacific Division, U.S. Corps of Engineers. March 1965. p. 1.
- ^ a b "Project Baseline Report (NVNO0227)". January 16, 1998. Archived from the original on September 26, 2006. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- ^ Kohlhoff, p. 60
- ^ a b c d e f Miller, Pam (1996). "Nuclear Flashback: Report of a Greenpeace Scientific Expedition to Amchitka Island, Alaska – Site of the Largest Underground Nuclear Test in U.S. History" (PDF). pp. 3, 5–6, 20, 27. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 28, 2006. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- ^ "The Milrow Test (DOE Historical Test Film 800040)". Archived from the original on September 28, 2006. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- ^ See Miller "Nuclear Flashback" or Schneider "Amchitka's nuclear legacy".
- JSTOR 1295751.
- ^ "Accomplishments in the 1970s: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory". Archived from the original on February 17, 2005. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- ^ a b Schneider, Doug. "Amchitka's nuclear legacy". University of Alaska Fairbanks. Archived from the original on September 12, 2006. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- ^ Vidal, John (May 4, 2005). "The original Mr Green". The Guardian. London. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
- ^ ISBN 1-896846-00-9. Archived from the originalon October 6, 2006. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- ^ "Committee for Nuclear Responsibility, Inc. v. Schlesinger , 404 U.S. 917 (1971)". US Supreme Court. November 6, 1971. Archived from the original on March 22, 2007. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
- ^ "Round 2 at Amchitka". Time. New York City. July 17, 1971. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- ^ a b "The Amchitka Bomb Goes Off". Time. November 15, 1971. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- ^ "Green Light on Cannikin". Time. November 8, 1971. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
- PMID 16593645.
- ^ Fritz, Stacey (April 2000). "The Role of National Missile Defense in the Environmental History of Alaska". University of Alaska Fairbanks. Archived from the original on December 30, 2010. Retrieved October 13, 2006.
- ^ a b Perlman, David (December 17, 2001). "Blast from the past: Researchers worry that radiation from nuclear test decades ago may be damaging marine life today". The San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
- doi:10.2172/4687405.
- ^ Jewett, Stephen; Hoberg, Max; Chenelot, Heloise; Harper, Shawn; Burger, Joanna; Gochfeld, Michael. (2005). "Scuba Techniques Used In Risk Assessment Of Possible Nuclear Leakage Around Amchitka Island, Alaska". In: Godfrey, JM; Shumway, SE. Diving for Science 2005. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences Symposium on March 10–12, 2005 at the University of Connecticut at Avery Point, Groton, Connecticut. American Academy of Underwater Sciences. Archived from the original on September 2, 2012. Retrieved January 10, 2011.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - PMID 17029666.
- ^ "Amchitka Island". Department of Energy. Archived from the original on September 25, 2006. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
- ^ "United States nuclear tests: July 1945 through September 1992" (PDF). Department of Energy. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 12, 2006. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
- ^ a b c Johnson, Mark. "Results from the Amchitka Oceanographic Survey" (PDF). University of Alaska, Fairbanks. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 6, 2008. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
Further reading
- Hunter, Robert. The Greenpeace to Amchitka An Environmental Odyssey. Vancouver, B.C.: ISBN 1-55152-178-4
- Sense, Richard G., and Roger J. Desautels. Amchitka Archaeology Progress Reports. Las Vegas, Nev: Holmes & Narver, Inc. 1970. [ISBN missing]
External links
- Home page of USS Worden (DD 352) A U.S. Navy destroyer that sank during the landing at Amchitka, January 12, 1943. Contains eyewitness accounts of the landings.
- The following links are to Department of Energy films about the Amitchka test facility. The videos include footage of the tests.
- The Amchitka Program (Video on YouTube)
- Project Long Shot (Video on YouTube)
- The Milrow Test (Video on YouTube)
- Project Cannikin Review (Video on YouTube)
- Amchitka Island Remediation Activities
- The Amchitka Program (Video on
- The following links are to current articles from the Anchorage Daily News about the Cannikin test.