Amda Seyon I
Amda Seyon I ዐምደ ጽዮን | |
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Ethiopian Orthodox Church |
Amda Seyon I, also known as Amda Tsiyon I
He is best known in his chronicles as a heroic warrior against the Muslims, and is sometimes considered to have been the founder of the Ethiopian Empire. Most of his wars were against the Muslim sultanates to the southeast, which he was able to fight and always defeat, and substantially enlarge his kingdom by gradually incorporating a number of neighboring states.[1]
His conquests of Muslim borderlands greatly expanded Christian territory and power in the region, which were maintained for centuries after his death. Amda Seyon asserted the strength of the new Solomonic dynasty and therefore legitimized it. These expansions further provided for the spread of Christianity to frontier areas, sparking a long era of proselytization, Christianization, and integration of previously peripheral areas.[7]
According to British historian Edward Ullendorff, "Amda Seyon was one of the most outstanding Ethiopian kings of any age and a singular figure dominating the Horn of Africa in the fourteenth century."[8]
Early life
It is argued[
It is not known how Amda Seyon became Emperor. However, a few pieces of information indicate that he may have been involved in the succession struggle against Wedem Arad.[10]
Early military campaigns
Taddesse Tamrat reports that he found a contemporary note written in a manuscript now kept in the island
- Go not to the king of Seyon [i.e. Ethiopia]. Do not give him gifts: if he comes against you, be not afraid of him, for he will be delivered into your hands and you will cause him to perish with his army.[12]
The emperor was infuriated, invading Hadiya and killing many people, and taking Amano prisoner along with many of his subjects. Bel'am, however was able to escape the emperor by fleeing to Ifat. These conquests represented a significant advancement of Amda Seyon's eventual goal of controlling the inland trade previously controlled by the Muslims in Ifat and farther east.[13] Hadiya's conquest deeply affected the slave trade and consequently hurt the trade and wealth of the eastern Muslim provinces. For the first time, the Muslim presence in the region was threatened, which later resulted in alliances between the Muslim provinces (which often rebelled) when they had previously acted more independently of each other.[13]
In the same year as his campaigns against the southern regions of Damot and Hadiya, the emperor also campaigned against the more northerly province of Gojjam.[14]
Northern campaigns
After his 1316/7 campaigns in the south, Amda Seyon had to turn north to strengthen his control over areas that had in the meanwhile gained more autonomy.
To consolidate his control in the region, Amda Seyon established a military colony of non-Tigrayan troops at Amba Senayata, the center of the rebellion, and appointed his queen consort, Bilén Saba, as governor of Enderta, along with a new batch of officials below her. The Queen ruled indirectly however, which caused unrest in the province as the population heavily resented Amhara rule. This induced the Emperor to appoint one of his sons, Bahr Seged, as governor, who was later in 1328 also given control of the maritime provinces under the title of Ma'ikele Bahr ("Between the Rivers/Seas").[16]
In 1329, the Emperor campaigned in the northern provinces of Semien, Wegera, Tselemt, and Tsegede, in which many had been converting to Judaism and where the Beta Israel had been gaining prominence.[17]
Amda Seyon was also wary of Muslim power along the Red Sea coast and therefore headed to area in modern Eritrea bordering the Red Sea: "I, King Amdä-ṣiyon, went to the sea of Eritrea [i.e. "Red Sea"]. When I reached there, I mounted on an elephant and entered the sea. I took up my arrow and spears, killed my enemies, and saved my people."[18]
During his campaign, the emperor also met the famous monk Ewostatewos, who was on his way to Armenia.[18]
Eastern campaigns
Around 1320, Sultan
As a result of Amda Seyon's reprisals, other Muslim states tried to attack his army, seeing that his army had become weak from the long campaigns. The people of
Causes
The most important primary source for his reign, The Glorious Victories, describes the extensive military campaigns Amda Seyon undertook in the plains drained by the Awash River. Beginning on 24 Yakatit (18 February), the Emperor led his army against a number of enemies; another document, referring to this year, states that he defeated 10 kings.[26] Rebellion in the Muslim provinces stemmed from the threat to Islam by Amda Seyon, magnified by the earlier loss of trade from his campaigns.[13] This defiance was encouraged and perhaps even instigated by religious leaders in Ifat and other Muslim provinces. The "false prophet" reported as having fled from Hadiya during the 1316/7 campaigns continued spreading propaganda against the king in Ifat, where he was one of Sabr ad-Din's advisors. The chronicle states:
The false prophet fled to the land of Ifat and lived there propagating his false teaching... And when Säbrädīn asked him for council he told him saying: "The kingdom of the Christians has now come to an end; and it has been given to us, for you will reign on in Siyon [i.e. Ethiopia]. Go, ascend [the mountains], and fight the king of the Christians; you will defeat him, and rule him together with his peoples."[13]
A second religious leader is noted as having fomented trouble in the region, specifically in Adal and Mora. He is called "Salih whose title was Qazī" (which it notes is a title similar to an archbishop), and is described as being revered and feared like God by the kings and rulers in the region. The chronicle ascribes blame to Salīh, stating that it was he "who gathered the Muslim troops, kings, and rulers" against the Emperor.[27]
As a result of these instigations and conditions, Sabr ad-Din I, governor of Ifat as well as brother and successor to Haqq ad-Din, showed defiance to Amda Seyon by confiscating some of the Emperor's goods in transit from the coast (i.e. Zeila), similar to what his brother had done before him. Amda Seyon was furious with Sabr ad-Din, saying to him, "You took away the commodities belonging to me obtained in exchange for the large quantity of gold and silver I had entrusted to the merchants... you imprisoned the traders who did business for me."[20]
Ifat campaign
Sabr ad-Din's rebellion was not an attempt to achieve independence, but to become emperor of a Muslim Ethiopia. Amda Seyon's royal chronicle states that Sabr ad-Din proclaimed:
- "I wish to be King of all Ethiopia; I will rule the Christians according to their law and I will destroy their churches...I will nominate governors in all the provinces of Ethiopia, as does the King of Tegulet], the capital of his kingdom.[28]
In fact, after his first incursion, Sabr ad-Din appointed governors for nearby and neighboring provinces such as
Sabr ad-Din's rebellion, with its religious support and ambitious goals, was therefore seen as a
Amda Seyon subsequently mobilized his soldiers to meet the threat, endowing them with gifts of gold, silver, and lavish clothing – so much so that the chronicler explains that "in his reign gold and silver abounded like stones and fine clothes were as common as the leaves of the trees or the grass in the fields."[31] Despite the extravagance he bestowed on his men, many chose not to fight due to the inhospitability of Ifat's mountainous and arid terrain and the complete absence of roads. Nevertheless, they advanced on 24 Yakatit, and an attachment was able to find the rebellious governor and put him to flight. Once the remainder of Amda Seyon's army arrived, they destroyed the capital and killed many soldiers, but Sabr ad-Din once again escaped. Amda Seyon's forces then grouped together for a final attack, destroying one of his camps, killing many men, women, and children, taking the rest prisoner, as well as looting it of its gold, silver, and its "fine clothes and jewels without number."[30]
Sabr ad-Din subsequently sued for peace, appealing to Queen Jan Mengesha, who refused his peace offer and expressed Amda Seyon's determination not to return to his capital until he had searched Sabr ad-Din out. Upon hearing this, Sabr ad-Din realized that his rebellion futile and surrendered himself to Amda Seyon's camp.[30] Amda Seyon's courtiers demanded that Sabr ad-Din be executed, but he instead granted him relative clemency and had the rebellious governor imprisoned. Amda Seyon then appointed the governor's brother, Jamal ad-Din I, as his successor in Ifat. Just as the Ifat rebellion had been quelled, however, the neighboring provinces of Adal and Mora just north of Ifat rose against the Emperor. Amda Seyon soon also put down this rebellion.[32]
Adal campaign
After much campaigning, Amda Seyon's troops were exhausted and wished to return to their homes, pleading that the rainy season was soon approaching. Amda Seyon refused, however, saying to them:
- "Do not repeat in front me what you have just said, for I will not leave so long as the ungodly Muslims make war on me, who am the King of all the Muslims of Ethiopia, and I have confidence in the help of God.[33]
The new governor of Ifat also beseeched him to return, giving him many gifts, stating that his country was ruined and begging him not to "ravage it again," so that its inhabitants may recover and work the land for the Emperor.[33] He promised him that if he left that Ifat and its inhabitants would serve the Emperor with their trade and tribute and that he and the Muslims of Ethiopia were the Emperor's servants. Amda Seyon rejected the governor's pleas, declaring:
- "While I am attacked by wolves and dogs, by the sons of vipers and children of evil who do not believe in the Son of God, I will never return to my kingdom, and if I leave without going as far as Adal I am no longer the son of my mother; let me no more be called a man, but a woman."[33]
Amda Seyon continued and was attacked twice in skirmishes before making camp.[33] The Muslims returned during the night in much greater numbers, and attacked him with an army raised from the seven "great clans" of Adal: Gebela, Lebekela, Wargar, Paguma, and Tiqo. During the battle, Amda Seyon was struck from the rear by an enemy's sword, cutting his girdle around his waist and his battle dress, but the Emperor was able to turn and kill the attacker with his spear before he could strike again.[34] According to James Bruce, the imperial army had been infiltrated by foreign agents from Harar, however Amda Seyon's men were able to apprehend and execute them.[35] Amda Seyon emerged victorious from the battle and sent fresh troops who had not fought to pursue the surviving enemies. They were able to reach the survivors on the banks of a nearby river by morning and kill them, taking many swords, bows, spears, and clothes.[36]
Jamal ad-Din, despite being his appointee, also joined the rebellion, collaborating with the ruler of Adal imam Salih to encircle the Emperor, to which the ruler of Adal responded by mobilizing his forces. The Ethiopian army was encircled by the two armies in the Battle of Das, but Amda Seyon was able to defeat them, despite being ill.[37] He then led his army against Talag, the capital of Adal, where the brother of the governor of Adal and three of the governor's sons surrendered. The Emperor then defeated another governor-king, retraced his steps, returning to Bequlzar in Ifat, where he commanded Jamal ad-Din to deliver him all of the province's apostate Christians. The Emperor was first given the priests, deacons, and soldiers, who were each given 30 lashes and imprisoned as slaves. He then turned to the other traitors, whom Jamal ad-Din refused to hand over. Amda Seyon again ravaged Ifat and deposed Jamal ad-Din, appointing Nasir ad-Din, another brother of Sabr ad-Din, as governor.[37]
Having finished campaigning in Ifat, he took his army to the town of Gu'ét, where he killed many men and captured numerous women and cattle. The Emperor then invaded the region of modern
Amda Seyon then continued to Degwi, killing numerous neighboring Warjih pastoralists, who had previously attacked and pillaged some Christian areas earlier in his reign. The chronicle described the people as "very wicked," as they "neither knew God nor feared men".[37] Before the end of the month of December, Amda Seyon ravaged the land of
At the close of this campaign, the chronicles states that Amda Seyon would eventually return to the highlands, never again to set foot in the Muslim territories, which the chronicler claims was unprecedented in the country's history. He is famous for never losing a battle. His tomb is believed to be in Adi Qelebes.[39][40]
Dates
Two different years have been offered for when these extensive military actions occurred is disputed. In his translation of The Glorious Victories,
Army
Emperor Amda Seyon's army was remarkably similar to the organization of the army during ancient Aksumite times.[44] It consisted of two parts: the first, his central army, was very effective and closely attached to the Royal Court; the second was a much larger local militia raised in times of local crises. These local units would, as in Aksumite times, form a distinctive unit and fight together, maintaining their local character and were divided into smaller units each headed by a local ruler.[45] From the reign of Amde Tseyon, Chewa regiments, or legions, formed the backbone of the Empire military forces. The Ge’ez term for these regiments is ṣewa (ጼዋ) while the Amharic term is č̣äwa (ጨዋ). The normal size of a regiment was several thousand men.[46] Each regiment was allocated a fief (Gult), to ensure its upkeep ensured by the land revenue.[46]
The central army was divided into independent regiments, each with its own specialized name, such as Qeste-Nihb, Hareb Gonda, and Tekula.[a] The independent regiments competed for the king's favor, who "raised" and "nourished" them from childhood.[45][47][b] The regiments were led by an intimately loyal commander directly responsible to Amda Seyon. His own son, Saf-Asegid, commanded one of these divisions, as did Amda Seyon's brother-in-law.[48] Moreover, the commander of Qeste-Nihb, Simishehal, along with his colleague Inze-Aygeb, were described as the "most beloved" officers of the Emperor, who was distressed when he learned of their injury at the Battle of Hagera.[49][c] The specialized regiments tied their fortune to that of the Emperor and were most likely taken from the best soldiers from around the country. Amda Seyon used them whenever quick action had to be taken, and their regiment commanders would often serve the role of governor in times of crises in certain provinces, as did Digna, the right-wing commander of the cavalry regiment Korem (named after the region/town of the same name) in 1332 then part of Angot, in Bete Amhara.[48] His central army further consisted of regional regiments similar to those of his local militias. They were drawn mainly from newly conquered provinces and shared a cultural and linguistic heritage. Most soldiers were probably prisoners taken in the conquests, though some were undoubtedly kept as servants to the royal court, while others were exported to slave markets or given to private citizens. Those who were to serve the Emperor were given military training, probably under a commander from the same region and loyal to the Emperor.[48] Most of these groups were broken down into smaller sections due to their size; for instance, in Amda Seyon's 1332 (or 1329) campaigns, a division of Damot fought the Beta Israel in the north, while another went to fight in the campaigns in the south against the Sultanate of Ifat.[50]
The Emperor improved the imperial army, which until his reign was not as heavily armed as his
- "their weapons of war are the bow with arrows resembling the nussab; swords, spears and lances. Some warriors fight with swords and with narrow and long shields. But their principal weapon is the spear which resembles a long lance. There are some [warriors] who fling darts which are [similar to] short arrows, with a long bow resembling a cross-bow."[50]
Despite the wide variety of weapons ascribed to the Ethiopian troops by al-Umari, swords and daggers were not often used by the Ethiopian army, which was mainly armed with bows, spears, and shields for defense, along with mounted soldiers.[51][d] The Muslims, however, are described as having "swords, daggers, iron sticks [dimbus]" and other weapons useful in close quarters, and al-Umari notes that "the arrows of the warriors of the Muslim borderlands are bigger" than those of the Solomonic army.[51] The Ethiopian army's strength was mainly numerical, but Amda Seyon did much to improve his army's equipment, increasing the use of swords and daggers (probably obtained through Muslim traders), and creating a special regiment armed with swords.[52] The Emperor also formed a special regiment of shield-bearers that was probably used to guard his archers.[52]
Trade and culture
Trade flourished under Amda Seyon.
Some of the earliest works of
Legacy
"These devastating victories settled the crucial question as to which of the powers, Christian or Muslim, was to dominate the southern region for the next two centuries. The glorious victories of Amda-Siyon fastened the Amhara yoke upon the Muslim neck." States Mohammed Hassen, "It made the southern region the nerve centre of Ethiopian history. Henceforth for the next two centuries, the southern region remained the source from which the stream of history flowed in different channels. In short, the wars of Amda-Siyon made the Amhara masters of the region, and from then on there gleams around the name Amhara that halo which belongs to the great conquering nations. However, in the long run these victories failed to achieve the desired end." "The campaigns of Amda-Siyon created an empire, but they did not lay a proper foundation for the creation of a nation. In no concrete manner was there a creative marriage of cultures, a passage of ideas, an equal sharing of wealth. To the Christians the conquest meant constant enrichment. To the Muslims it meant constant destruction, pillaging and poverty."[56]
See also
Notes
a. ^ Taddesse Tamrat notes that, according to Jules Perruchon, Tekula literally means "jackal," while Qeste-Nihb means "the sting of the bee."[45]
b. ^ Seeing many of his soldiers flee at the sight of the powerful armies of Jamal ad-Din and of Adal, the sick Amda Seyon noted: "Have you forgotten, besides, that it was I who raised, you, nourished you, and covered you with ornaments of gold and silver and precious clothes!"[57]
c. ^ Simshehal's name also appears as "Semey" in a list of governors with the title Ma'ikele-Bahr (lit. "between the rivers/seas," a northern maritime province) and in the Royal chronicle as "Sumey (-shehal)" and "Simiy (-shihal)."[58] Inze-Aygab also appears once as "Yanz-Aygeb."[49]
d. ^ According to Taddesse Tamrat, though the royal chronicle describes Amda Seyon as being armed with a sword, the chronicler only refers to the Emperors skill with the bow and arrow, spear, and shield; Taddesse further notes in a footnote that swords seem to only be used in a ceremonial manner in contemporary hagiographies.[51]
e. ^ According to Taddesse Tamrat, from traditional indications in the hagiography of Abiye Igzi'.[16]
f. ^ A translation with notes of these four songs is included in The Glorious Victories, pp. 129–134.
Citations
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol. 1, p. 321.
- ^ Budge, E. A. Wallis (1928). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia (Volume 1). London: Methuen & Co. p. 290.
- ^ Vingograd, A.G (2020). King Solomon: Rome and Ethiopia. WP IPGEB. p. 117.
- ISBN 0-85255-786-8.
- ISBN 9780521195102.
- ^ "Amda Seyon I | Biography & Facts | Britannica".
- ^ a b Joanna Mantel-Niećko and Denis Nosnitsin, "cAmdä Ṣəyon I" in Siegbert Uhlig, Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003), p. 228.
- ^ Edward Ullendorff, his review of Huntingford's translation of The Glorious Victories of Amda Ṣeyon, King of Ethiopia, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 29 (1966), p. 600
- ^ G.W.B. Huntingford, The Glorious Victories of Amda Seyon, King of Ethiopia (Oxford: University Press, 1965), pp. 6ff.
- ^ Joanna Mantel-Niećko and Denis Nosnitsin, "Amdä Ṣəyon I", p. 227.
- ^ Taddesse, Church and State, pp. 135ff.
- ^ a b Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century (Asmara, Eritrea: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 78.
- ^ a b c d Taddesse, Church and State, p. 137.
- ^ a b Taddesse, Church and State, p. 73.
- ^ Mantel-Niećko and Nosnitsin, "Amdä ṣeyon I" in von Uhlig, Encyclopaedia.
- ^ a b c d Taddesse Church and State, p. 74.
- ^ a b Pankhurst, Borderlands, p. 79.
- ^ a b Taddesse, Church and State, p. 77.
- ^ Pankhurst, Borderlands, p. 40.
- ^ a b Pankhurst, Borderlands, p. 41.
- ^ J. Spencer Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 71.
- ^ Gidaya. Encyclopedia Aethiopica.
- ISBN 9780932415196.
- ISBN 9781847011176.
- ISBN 9781136970221.
- ^ Huntingford, The Glorious Victories, p. 5.
- ^ Taddesse, Church and State, p. 138.
- ^ Pankhurst, Richard K.P. The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles. Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1967, p. 15.
- ^ Pankhurst, Borderlands, p. 42.
- ^ a b c Pankhurst, Borderlands, p. 43.
- ^ Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, p. 16.
- ^ Pankhurst, Borderlands, p. 44.
- ^ a b c d Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, p. 18.
- ^ Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Bruce, James. Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, Volume II In the years 1769, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 and 1773.
- ^ Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, p. 20.
- ^ a b c Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, p. 45.
- ^ Huntingford, The Glorious Victories, passim.
- ^ Amare, Kebede. Mysteries Of Maryam Nazre (PDF). Mekelle University. p. 132.
- ISBN 9780932415196.
- ^ Huntingford, The Glorious Victories, p. 53.
- ^ Ullendorff, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, p. 605. Ullendorff concludes his discussion of Huntigford's preference for 1329 with, "I know of no valid reason why we should abandon the year 1332 as that generally agreed for 'Amda Seyon's Adal campaign."
- ^ Taddesse, Church and State, p. 138 n. 2. (He also states that he disagrees with Huntingford over many of the geographical identifications, p. 139 n. 4.)
- ^ Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 89.
- ^ a b c Taddesse, Church and State, p. 90.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-136-28090-0.
- ^ Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp.
- ^ a b c Taddesse, Church and State, p. 91.
- ^ a b Taddesse, Church and State, p. 90n.
- ^ a b Taddesse, Church and State, p. 92.
- ^ a b c Taddesse, Church and State, p. 93.
- ^ a b Taddesse, Church and State, p. 94.
- ^ Taddesse, Church and State, p. 89.
- ^ Edward Ullendorff, Ethiopia and the Bible (Oxford: University Press for the British Academy, 1968), pp. 32f, 35
- ^ Taddesse, Church and state, p. 251.
- ^ Mohammed Hassen, The Oromo of Ethiopia pp.15
- ^ Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, p. 23.
- ^ Taddesse, Church and State, p. 91n.
References
Primary sources (Ethiopian)
- Huntingford, G.W.B., ed. The Glorious Victories of Amda Seyon, King of Ethiopia. Oxford: University Press, 1965.
- Pankhurst, Richard K.P., ed. The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles. Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1967.
Secondary sources
- Mantel-Niećko, Joanna and Nosnitsin, Dennis. "Amdä ṣeyon I" in Siegbert Herausgegeben von Uhlig, ed., Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C. Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003.
- Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. Asmara, Eritrea: The Red Sea, Inc., 1997.
- Taddesse Tamrat. Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
- Trimingham, J. Spencer. Islam in Ethiopia. Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952.