Amenhotep I
Amenhotep I | |
---|---|
Amenophis I, Amenôthes I[1] | |
Pharaoh | |
Reign | 1525–1504 BC (disputed), 20 years and 7 months in Manetho[2] |
Predecessor | Ahmose I |
Successor | Thutmose I |
Consort | Deir el-Bahri cache, but was likely originally buried in Dra' Abu el-Naga' (possibly Tomb ANB) or KV39 |
Dynasty | 18th Dynasty |
Amenhotep I (
He was a son of Ahmose I and Ahmose-Nefertari, but had at least two elder brothers, Ahmose-ankh and Ahmose Sapair, and was not expected to inherit the throne. However, sometime in the eight years between Ahmose I's 17th regnal year and his death, his heir apparent died and Amenhotep became crown prince.[7] He then acceded to the throne and ruled for about 21 years.[2]
Although his reign is poorly documented, it is possible to piece together a basic history from available evidence. He inherited the kingdom formed by his father's military conquests and maintained dominance over
Family
Amenhotep I was the son of
Beyond this, the relationships between Amenhotep I and other possible family members are unclear. Ahhotep II is usually called his wife and sister,[11] despite an alternative theory that she was his grandmother.[12] He is thought to have had one son by Ahhotep II, Amenemhat, who died while still very young.[11] This remains the consensus, although there are arguments against that relationship as well.[12] With no living heirs, Amenhotep was succeeded by Thutmose I, who he married to his "sister", Ahmose.[11] Since Ahmose is never given the title "King's Daughter" in any inscription, some scholars doubt whether she was a sibling of Amenhotep I.[12]
Dates and length of reign
In Amenhotep I's ninth regnal year, a
Manetho's Epitome states that Amenhotep I ruled Egypt for twenty years and seven months or twenty-one years, depending on the source.[15] While Amenhotep I's highest attested regnal year is only his Year 10, Manetho's statement is confirmed by a passage in the tomb autobiography of a magician named Amenemhet. This explicitly states that he served under Amenhotep I for 21 years.[16] Thus, in the high chronology, Amenhotep I is given a reign from around 1546 to 1526 BC and, in the low chronology, from around 1526 to 1506 BC or 1525 to 1504 BC,[17] though individual scholars may ascribe dates to his reign that vary from these by a few years.
Foreign policy
Amenhotep I's
A single reference in the tomb of Ahmose Pen-Nekhebet indicates another campaign in Iamu in the land of Kehek.[20] Unfortunately, the location of Kehek is unknown. It was long believed that Kehek was a reference to the Libyan tribe, Qeheq, and thus it was postulated that invaders from Libya took advantage of the death of Ahmose to move into the western Nile Delta.[21] Unfortunately for this theory, the Qeheq people only appeared in later times, and Kehek's identity remains unknown. Nubia is a possibility, since Amenhotep did campaign there, and the western desert and the oases have also been suggested, since these seem to have fallen under Egyptian control once again.[20]
Egypt had lost the western desert and the oases during the second intermediate period, and during the revolt against the Hyksos, Kamose thought it necessary to garrison them.[22] It is uncertain when they were fully retaken, but on one stele, the title "Prince-Governor of the oases" was used,[23] which means that Amenhotep's reign forms the terminus ante quem for the return of Egyptian rule.[22]
There are no recorded campaigns in Syro-Palestine during Amenhotep I's reign. However, according to the Tombos Stela of his successor, Thutmose I, when Thutmose led a campaign into Asia all the way to the Euphrates, he found no one who fought against him.[24] If Thutmose did not lead a campaign which has not been recorded into Asia before this recorded one, it would mean that the preceding pharaoh would have had to pacify Syria instead,[25] which would indicate a possible Asiatic campaign of Amenhotep I. Two references to the Levant potentially written during his reign might be contemporary witnesses to such a campaign. One of the candidates for Amenhotep's tomb contains a reference to Qedmi, which is somewhere in Canaan or the Transjordan, and Amenemhet's tomb contains a hostile reference to Mitanni.[26] However, neither of these references necessarily refer to campaigning, nor do they even necessarily date to Amenhotep's reign. The location of Amenhotep's tomb is not certain, and Amenemhet lived to serve under multiple kings who are known to have attacked Mitanni.[26] Records from Amenhotep's reign are simply altogether too scant and too vague to reach a conclusion about any Syrian campaign.
Cultural and intellectual developments
Large numbers of statues of Amenhotep have been found, but they are mostly from the
It was probably Amenhotep I who founded the artisans village at Deir el-Medina, whose inhabitants were responsible for much of the art which filled the tombs in the Theban Necropolis for the following generations of New Kingdom rulers and nobles.[12] The earliest name found there is that of Thutmose I, however Amenhotep was clearly an important figure to the city's workmen since he and his mother were both its patron deities.[30]
Amenhotep's reign saw literary developments. The
It appears that during Amenhotep I's reign the first water clock was invented.[32] Amenhotep's court astronomer Amenemheb took credit for creating this device in his tomb biography, although the oldest surviving mechanism dates to the reign of Amenhotep III.[33] This invention was of great benefit for timekeeping, because the Egyptian hour was not a fixed amount of time, but was measured as 1/12 of the night.[33] When the nights were shorter in the summer, these waterclocks could be adjusted to measure the shorter hours accurately.[33]
Building projects
Amenhotep began or continued a number of building projects at temple sites in Upper Egypt but most of the structures he built were later dismantled or obliterated by his successors. From written sources it is known that he commissioned the architect
Mortuary complex
Amenhotep I was the first king of Egypt to separate his mortuary temple from his tomb, probably in an attempt to keep his tomb safe from robbers. This temple was sited at the north end of
Tomb and burial
The original location of Amenhotep's tomb has not been securely identified. A report on the security of royal tombs in the Theban Necropolis commissioned during the troubled reign of
Mummy
Sometime during the 20th or 21st Dynasty, Amenhotep's original tomb was either robbed or deemed insecure and emptied and his body was moved for safety, probably more than once. It was found in the
In 1980, James Harris and Edward F. Wente conducted X-ray examinations of New Kingdom Pharaoh's crania and skeletal remains, which included the mummified remains of Amenhotep I. The authors determined that the royal mummies of the 18th Dynasty bore strong similarities to contemporary Nubians with slight differences.[40]
In April 2021 his mummy was moved to National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade.[41]
CT scan
The X-ray examinations of the mummy of King Amenhotep I failed to provide consistent data or detailed information on the mummy. In the plain x-ray examination, the three-dimensional (3D) information of the mummy is projected onto a two-dimensional X-ray film. The result is the superimposition of objects and bones which makes mummy characterization less satisfactory.
Succession and legacy
Amenhotep I is thought to have had only one child, a son who died in infancy, although some sources indicate he had no children.[43] Amenhotep I was succeeded by Thutmose I, apparently a senior military figure. It is unclear if there was any blood relationship between the two, although it has been suggested that Thutmose I was a son of Amenhotep's elder brother Ahmose Sipairi.[44] Amenhotep may have appointed Thutmose I as coregent before his own death as Thutmose I's name appears next to Amenhotep's on a divine barque found by archeologists in the fill of the third pylon at Karnak.[23] However, most scholars consider that this is only evidence of Thutmose associating himself with his royal predecessor.[12] One text has also been interpreted to mean that Amenhotep appointed his infant son as coregent, who then predeceased him.[45] However, the scholarly consensus is that there is too little evidence for either coregency.
Funerary cult
Amenhotep was deified upon his death and made the patron deity of the village which he opened at
Further light is shed upon Amenhotep's funerary cult by multiple documents which appear to detail the rituals dedicated to Amenhotep.[48] Three papyri from the time of Ramesses II record the liturgy used by the priests, and reliefs at Karnak and Medinet Habu illustrate select rites and spells.[48] The bulk of the rituals concern preparing for and conducting the daily offerings of libations for the idol, including a recitation of a ḥtp-dỉ-nsw formula, and purifying and sealing the shrine at the end of the day.[49] The remainder of the rites concern how to conduct various feasts throughout the year.[50] In these cases, Amenhotep's idol or a priest representing him is actually officiating the worship of Amun instead of being worshipped himself, which was not a typical cultic practice in ancient Egypt.[51]
See also
Citations
- ISBN 978-3-8496-5019-3.
- ^ a b Manetho - translated by W.G. Waddell, Loeb Classical Library, 1940, p.109
- ^ a b c d Leprohon 2013, p. 96.
- ^ Clayton, p.100.
- ^ "Amenhotep III or Amenhotpe III". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
- ^ "Amenophis III". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
- ^ a b Dodson & Hilton (2004) p.126
- ^ "Amenhotep I". British Museum. Retrieved 2007-05-20.[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b Grimal, p. 201.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Shaw and Nicholson, p. 28.
- ^ a b c d Grimal, p. 190.
- ^ Bleiberg, p. 71.
- ^ a b c d e Grimal, p.202.
- ^ Helk, Otto, Drenkhahn, p.969.
- ^ Fingerson, Manetho's King List.
- ^ Redford, p.114.
- ^ von Beckerath, p.189.
- ^ Breasted, p. 17-18.
- ^ Breasted, p. 18.
- ^ a b James, p. 310.
- ^ Steindorff, Seele, p.33.
- ^ a b James, p. 311.
- ^ a b c d e Grimal, p.203.
- ^ Breasted, p. 30.
- ^ Breasted, p. 28.
- ^ a b James, p. 309.
- ^ a b Freed, p.133.
- ^ Aldred, p.146.
- ^ Ashton, Spanel, p.58.
- ^ Bryan, p.224.
- ^ a b c d Grimal, p. 206.
- ^ Helk, pp. 111-112.
- ^ a b c West, p.63.
- ^ Breasted, p. 19.
- ^ Breasted, p. 20.
- ^ a b Bryan, p.226.
- ^ a b Dodson, p.42.
- ^ Dodson, p.43.
- ^ Shaw, p. 136.
- ISBN 0226317455.
- ^ Parisse, Emmanuel (5 April 2021). "22 Ancient Pharaohs Have Been Carried Across Cairo in an Epic 'Golden Parade'". ScienceAlert. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
- ^ PMID 35028305.
- ^ Dodson p 127
- ^ Dodson p 129
- ^ Wente, p. 271
- ^ Kruchten, p.610.
- ^ a b c d e Redford, p.115.
- ^ a b Nelson, Certain Reliefs. p.204.
- ^ Nelson, Certain Reliefs. p.230.
- ^ Nelson, Certain Reliefs. p.232.
- ^ Nelson, Certain Reliefs (Concluded). p.344.
References
Print sources
- Aldred, Cyril. Egyptian Art. Thames and Hudson Ltd., London. 1980.
- Ashton, Sally; and Spanel, Donald. "Portraiture," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 3, pp. 55–59. Oxford University Press, 2001.
- v. Beckerath, Jürgen. Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1997.
- Bleiberg, Edward. "Amenhotep I," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 1, p. 71. Oxford University Press, 2001.
- Borchardt, Ludwig. Altägyptische Zeitmessung (Die Geschichte der Zeitmessung und der Uhren) I. Berlin and Leipzig, 1920.
- Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ISBN 90-04-12989-8.
- Bryan, Betsy M. "The 18th Dynasty Before the Amarna Period." The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Ian Shaw. pp. 218–271. Oxford University Press, 2000.
- Clayton, Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames and Hudson Ltd, 2006.
- Dodson, Aidan. Amenhotep I and Deir el-Bahri. Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum, vol.3, 1989/90
- Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, London, 2004
- reviewed by A.J.Veldmeijer Archived 2019-08-19 at the Wayback Machine - Netherlands Scientific Journals in Palaeontology & Egyptology > palarch.nl Archived 2017-11-12 at the Wayback Machine
- Freed, Rita E. "Art," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 1, pp. 127–136. Oxford University Press, 2001.
- Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ISBN 90-04-12989-8.
- Helck, Wolfgang. Historisch-biographische Texte der 2. Zwischenzeit und neue Texte der 18. Dynastie. Wiesbaden, 1975.
- Helck, Wolfgang; Otto, Eberhard; Drenkhahn, Rosmarie. Lexikon der Ägyptologie I. Wiesbaden.
- James, T.G.H. Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I. in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 2, part 1, ed. Edwards, I.E.S, et al. Cambridge University Press, 1965.
- Kruchten, Jean Marie. "Oracles," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 2, pp. 609–612. Oxford University Press, 2001.
- Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. SBL Press. ISBN 978-1-58983-736-2. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
- Lilyquist, Christine. Egyptian Art, Notable Acquisitions, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980.
- Nelson, Harold H. Certain Reliefs at Karnak and Medinet Habu and the Ritual of Amenophis I. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Jul., 1949)
- Nelson, Harold H. Certain Reliefs at Karnak and Medinet Habu and the Ritual of Amenophis I-(Concluded). Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 8, No. 4 (Oct., 1949)
- Redford, Donald The Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 25 (1966).
- Shaw, Ian. Exploring Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2003.
- Shaw, Ian; and Nicholson, Paul. The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. The British Museum Press, 1995.
- Steindorff, George; and Seele, Keith. When Egypt Ruled the East. University of Chicago, 1942.
- Wente, Edward F. Thutmose III's Accession and the Beginning of the New Kingdom. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, University of Chicago Press, 1975.
- West, Stephanie. Cultural Interchange over a Water-Clock. The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 23, No. 1, May, 1973.
External links
- Amenhotep I - The British Museum Accessed June 10, 2010
- Andrews, Mark. "KV 39, The Tomb of Amenhotep I?". InterCity Oz, Inc. Archived from the original on 8 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-01.
- Fingerson, R. Manetho's King List
- Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Amenhotep I (see index)
- Routledge, B. (10 September 2007) - Statue of Amenhotep I circa 1510 BC Thebes, National Education Network, Accessed February 14, 2017
- Peacock, L. - Amenhotep I temple at Deir el-Medina Accessed January 6, 2021
- Saleem, Sahar N., Hawass Zahi. Digital Unwrapping of the Mummy of King Amenhotep I (1525–1504 BC) Using CT, 28 Dec. 2021; see also BBC'c article on this unwrapping: "Egyptian pharaoh's mummy digitally unwrapped for first time"[1]