Amenhotep III

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Amenhotep III
Nibmu(`w)areya,[1] Mimureya, Amenophis III
Statue of Amenhotep III, British Museum
Statue of Amenhotep III, British Museum
Pharaoh
Reign1391–1353 or
1388–1351 BC
PredecessorThutmose IV
SuccessorAkhenaten
Royal titulary
Horus name
Ka nakht kha em maat
Kꜣ nḫt ḫˁ m mꜣˁt
"The strong bull who has appeared in truth"[2]
G5
E1
D40		 mN28H6
Nebty name
Semen hepu segereh tawy
smn hpw sgrḥ tꜣwy
"Who has established laws and pacified the Two Lands"[2]
G16
smn
n
Y1		 O4
p		 Z2
w		 sW11
r		 V28a
N17
N17
Golden Horus
Aa khepesh hui setjetiu
ˁꜣ-ḫpš ḥwi sṯtyw
"The great-of-strength one who has struck down the Asiatics"[2]
G8
O29
a
F23		 V28A24S22
t G4		 T14Z3
Prenomen  (Praenomen)
Neb maat re
Nb mꜣˁt rˁ
"The possessor of the Maat of Re"[2]
The Lord of Truth is Re[3]
M23L2
ramAatnb
Nomen
Imen hetepu heka waset
Imn ḥtp(.w) ḥḳꜣ wꜣst
"Amun is satisfied, ruler of Thebes"[2]
G39N5
imn
n		 R4HqAR19
Consort
Tadukhepa
Sitamun
Iset
ChildrenThutmose
Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten
Sitamun
Iset
Henuttaneb
Nebetah
"The Younger Lady"
Beketaten (theorized)
Smenkhkare (theorized)
FatherThutmose IV
MotherMutemwiya
Died1353 BC or 1351 BC
BurialWV22; Mummy found in the KV35 royal cache (Theban Necropolis)
MonumentsMalkata, Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III, Colossi of Memnon
Dynasty18th Dynasty

Amenhotep III (

Eighteenth Dynasty. According to different authors following the "Low Chronology", he ruled Egypt from June 1386 to 1349 BC, or from June 1388 BC to December 1351 BC/1350 BC,[7] after his father Thutmose IV died. Amenhotep was Thutmose's son by a minor wife, Mutemwiya.[8]

His reign was a period of unprecedented prosperity and splendour, when Egypt reached the peak of its artistic and international power, and as such he is considered one of ancient Egypt's greatest pharaohs.[9][10][11]

When he died in the 38th or 39th year of his reign he was succeeded by his son Amenhotep IV, who later changed his name to Akhenaten.

Family and early life

Amenhotep and Tiye with one of their daughters

Amenhotep was the son of Thutmose IV and his minor wife Mutemwiya. He was born probably around 1401 BC.[12] Later in his life, Amenhotep commissioned the depiction of his divine birth to be displayed at Luxor Temple. Amenhotep claimed that his true father was the god Amun, who had taken the form of Thutmose IV to father a child with Mutemwiya.[13][14]

In Regnal Year 2, Amenhotep married

Crown Prince Thutmose and Amenhotep IV (later called Akhenaten). In addition, several daughters are frequently credited to the couple: Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Iset, Nebetah, and Beketaten.[15] Most of the daughters appear frequently on statues and reliefs from Amenhotep's reign.[16] However, Nebetah is attested only once, on a colossal limestone group of statues from Medinet Habu,[15][17] and Beketaten only appears in Amarna.[18]

One of the many commemorative "marriage scarabs" of Amenhotep, which affirm the divine power of the king and the legitimacy of his wife, Tiye. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

Amenhotep is also sometimes credited as the father of Smenkhkare or Tutankhamun

, with varying proposals for their mothers, but these theories are not as accepted as his other, known children.

In addition to Tiye, Amenhotep

Tarhundaradu, ruler of Arzawa; and a daughter of the ruler of Ammia (modern-day Syria).[21]

Finally, he married at least two of his daughters, Sitamun and Iset, in the last decade of his reign. Jar-label inscriptions from Regnal Year 30 indicate that Sitamun was elevated to the status of Great Royal Wife by that time.[15] Although shunned by common Egyptians, incest was not uncommon among royalty.[22] A sculpture restored by Amenhotep for his grandfather, Amenhotep II, shows Sitamun with a young prince beside her.[22] This has led to theories that Sitamun was the mother of Smekhkare and/or Tutankhamun.

Life and reign

Queen Tiye
, Great Royal Wife of Amenhotep

Amenhotep probably became pharaoh when he was between the ages of 6 and 12. While it is likely that a regent would have ruled until he came of age, none is attested in the surviving records. In Regnal Year 11, Amenhotep commanded the construction of an artificial lake at Tiye's hometown of Djakaru. He then celebrated a Festival of Opening the Lake in the third month of Inundation, day sixteen, and rowed the royal barge Aten-tjehen on the lake. This event was commemorated on at least eleven commemorative scarabs.[23]

From other scarabs, Amenhotep is known to have killed either 102 or 110 lions in the first ten years of his reign.[24]

Despite the martial prowess Amenhotep displayed during the hunt, he is known to have participated in only one military incident. In Regnal Year Five, he led a victorious campaign against a rebellion in Kush. This victory was commemorated by three rock-carved stelae found near Aswan and Saï in Nubia. The official account of Amenhotep's military victory emphasizes his martial prowess with the hyperbole typical of the period.[25]

Court of Amenhotep III

There is a significant attestation for the court officials who served during Amenhotep's reign, primarily through the discovery of their tombs in the Theban Necropolis. Among these court officials were the viziers Ramose, Amenhotep, Aperel, and Ptahmose. Other officials included the treasurers Ptahmose and Merire; the high stewards, Amenemhat Surer and Amenhotep (Huy); and the Viceroy of Kush, Merimose.

Amenhotep, son of Hapu held many offices during the reign of Amenhotep the pharaoh, but is best known for receiving the right to build his mortuary temple behind that of the king.[26] Amenhotep, son of Hapu, was deified after his death and was one of the few non-royals to be worshiped in such a manner.[27][28]

Malkata Palace

The palace of

Per-Hay, "House of Rejoicing". Originally, the palace was known as the Palace of the Dazzling Aten
. Built mostly out of mud-brick, it was Amenhotep's residence throughout most of the later part of his reign. Construction began around Regnal Year 11 and continued until the king moved to the palace permanently around Regnal Year 29. Once completed, it was the largest royal residence in Egypt.

Sed festivals

Amenhotep celebrated three Sed festivals in Regnal Years 30, 34, and 37, each at Malkata palace in Western Thebes.[29] A temple of Amun and festival hall were built especially for the celebrations.[30] The Sed festival was a tradition that dated to the Old Kingdom,[31] consisting of a series of tests that demonstrated the pharaoh's fitness for continuing as ruler of Egypt. Based on indications left by Queen Tiye's steward Khenruef, the festival may have lasted two to eight months.[32]

Amenhotep wanted his Sed Festivals to be far more spectacular than those of the past.[33] He appointed Amenhotep, son of Hapu to plan the ceremony, potentially because he was one of the few courtiers still alive to have served at the last Sed Festival, held for Amenhotep II.[33] In preparation for the first Sed Festival, Amenhotep, son of Hapu enlisted scribes to gather information from records and inscriptions, most found in ancient funerary temples,[33] describing the appropriate rituals and costumes.

Temples were built and statues erected up and down the Nile. Craftsmen and jewelers created ornaments commentating the event including jewelry, ornaments, and stelae.[33] The scribe Nebmerutef coordinated every step of the event.[34] He directed Amenhotep to use his mace to knock on the temple doors. Beside him, Amenhotep-Hapu mirrored his effort like a royal shadow.[34] The king was followed by Queen Tiye and the royal daughters. When moving to another venue, the banner of the jackal god Wepwawet, "Opener of Ways" preceded the King. The king changed his costume at each major activity of the celebration.[34]

One of the major highlights of the festival was the king's dual coronation. He was enthroned separately for Upper and Lower Egypt. For Upper Egypt, Amenhotep wore the white crown but changed to the red crown for the Lower Egypt coronation.[35]

After the Sed festival, Amenhotep transcended from being a near-god to one divine.[36] The king may have later traveled across Egypt following the festival, potentially reenacting the ceremony for different audiences.[32] Few Egyptian kings lived long enough for their own celebration. Those who survived used the celebration as the affirmation of transition to divinity.

International relations

Amarna letter. Letter from Labayu (ruler of Shechem) to the Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep III or his son Akhenaten. 14th century BCE. From Tell el-Amarna, Egypt.

Diplomatic correspondence from Amenhotep's reign are partially preserved in the

Hatti, and other states, typically including requests by those rulers for gold and other gifts from Amenhotep. The letters cover the period from Year 30 of Amenhotep until at least the end of Akhenaten's reign. In Amarna Letter EA 4, Amenhotep is quoted by the Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil I
in firmly rejecting the latter's entreaty to marry one of this pharaoh's daughters:

From time immemorial, no daughter of the king of Egy[pt] is given to anyone.[37]

Amenhotep's refusal to allow one of his daughters to be married to the Babylonian monarch may indeed have followed from Egyptian royal custom, which allowed a claim upon the throne through descent from a royal princess. It could also be viewed as a diplomatic stratagem to enhance Egypt's prestige, as Amenhotep himself married the daughters of several foreign rulers while refusing them his own daughters.

The Amarna Letters also reference the exchange between Amenhotep and the Mitanni King Tushratta of the statue of a healing goddess,

Ishtar of Nineveh, late in Amenhotep's reign. Scholars have generally assumed that the statue's sojourn to Egypt was requested by Amenhotep in order to cure him of his various ailments, which included painful abscesses in his teeth.[38] However, William L. Moran's analysis of Amarna Letter EA 23
, relating to the dispatch of the statue to Thebes, discounts this theory.

The arrival of the statue is known to have coincided with Amenhotep's marriage with

Tadukhepa, Tushratta's daughter, in the pharaoh's 36th year; letter EA 23's arrival in Egypt is dated to "regnal year 36, the fourth month of winter, day 1" of his reign.[39]
Furthermore, Tushratta never mentions in EA 23 that the statue's dispatch was meant to heal Amenhotep of his maladies. Instead, Tushratta writes in part:

... Thus

Ishtar), the mistress of heaven, protect us, my brother and me, a 100,000 years, and may our mistress grant both of us great joy. And let us act as friends. Is Šauška for me alone my god[dess], and for my brother not his god[dess]?[40]

The likeliest explanation is that the statue was sent to Egypt "to shed her blessings on the wedding of Amenhotep and Tadukhepa, as she had been sent previously for Amenhotep and

Gilukhepa."[41] Moran agrees that this explanation was more likely.[42]
Further, Moran argues that the contents of Amarna Letter EA 21 support this claim, wherein Tushratta asks the gods, including Ishtar, for their blessing of the marriage. [43]

In the 14th century BCE, the pharaoh sent an expedition to Cyprus to establish Egyptian control over the island, which was subsequently maintained for several centuries. During this time, the Egyptians established a number of settlements on the island, and they exported copper and other raw materials from Cyprus to Egypt in exchange for luxury goods and other commodities.[44][verification needed] [45][verification needed] However, the Egyptian presence on Cyprus was at times interrupted by incursions of other powers, including the Hittites and the Mycenaeans.

Succession

Thutmose, the eldest son of Amenhotep III with his wife Tiye, became Crown Prince,[46] but died before his father. Amenhotep was ultimately succeeded by his second son, who ascended the throne as Amenhotep IV and later took the name Akhenaten.

Proposed coregency with Amenhotep IV / Akhenaten

It has long been theorized that Amenhotep III shared a

coregency with his son Amenhotep IV. Lawrence Berman has claimed that proponents of the coregency theory tended to be art historians, while historians remained unconvinced.[47]

Eric Cline, Nicholas Reeves, Peter Dorman, and other scholars argue strongly against the establishment of a long coregency between the two rulers and in favor of either no coregency or one of at most two years.[48] Donald B. Redford, William J. Murnane, Alan Gardiner, and Lawrence Berman contest the view of any coregency whatsoever between Akhenaten and his father.

A statue head of Amenhotep III collected by the Cleveland Museum of Art. The image was created during his reign.

Evidence against a coregency includes

Tadukhepa, and Amenhotep III.[49] This correspondence implies that if any coregency occurred between Amenhotep and Akhenaten, it lasted no more than a year.[50]

However in February 2014, Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced that findings from the tomb of Vizier Amenhotep-Huy gave "conclusive evidence" of a coregency that lasted at least eight years.[51][52] In the tomb, the cartouches of the two pharaohs were carved side by side. However, this conclusion has since been called into question by other egyptologists, according to whom the inscription means only that construction on Amenhotep-Huy's tomb started during Amenhotep III's reign and ended under Akhenaten's, and Amenhotep-Huy thus simply wanted to pay his respects to both rulers, carving their names separately rather than simultaneously.

Later life

Amenhotep and Sobek, from Dahamsha, now in the Luxor Museum

Health and death

Amenhotep's greatest attested regnal date is Year 38, which appears on wine jar-label dockets from Malkata.[53] He may have lived briefly into an unrecorded Year 39 and died before the wine harvest of that year.[54] Reliefs from the wall of the temple of Soleb in Nubia and scenes from the Theban tomb of Kheruef, Steward of the King's Great Wife, Tiye, depict Amenhotep as a visibly weak and sick figure.[55] Scientists believe that in his final years he suffered from arthritis and obesity. Further, a forensic examination of his mummy revealed worn and cavity-pitted teeth which must have inflicted constant pain. An examination of the mummy by the Australian anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith concluded that the pharaoh had died at between the age of 40 and 50.[56]

He was survived by at least one child, his successor Amenhotep IV. His wife Tiye is known to have outlived him by at least twelve years, as she is mentioned in several Amarna letters dated from her son's reign, as well as depicted at the royal dinner table in Akhenaten's years 9 and 12, in scenes from the tomb of

Huya.[57][47]

Foreign leaders communicated their grief at the pharaoh's death, with Tushratta saying:

When I heard that my brother Nimmureya had gone to his fate, on that day I sat down and wept. On that day I took no food, I took no water.[58]

Burial and mummy

The mummy of Amenhotep III during unwrapping

Amenhotep was buried in tomb

Third Intermediate Period, Amenhotep's mummy was later moved to the mummy cache in KV35 along with several other pharaohs of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties, where it lay until discovered by Victor Loret in 1898.[59][60]

For the 18th dynasty, the mummy shows an unusually heavy use of subcutaneous stuffing to make the mummy look more lifelike.[61] The mummy has museum inventory number CG 61074.[61]

Mummified head of Amenhotep III following unwrapping

In April 2021, his mummy was moved from the

Museum of Egyptian Antiquities to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization, along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade.[62]

Monuments and legacy

The northern Colossus of Memnon
Amenhotep, Luxor Museum

Amenhotep has the distinction of having the most surviving statues of any Egyptian pharaoh, with over 250 identified. These statues provide a series of portraits covering the entire length of his reign.

When Amenhotep died, he left behind a country at the very height of its power and influence, commanding immense respect in the international world. However, it was a country wedded to age-old political and religious certainties under the Amun priesthood.[63]

The resulting upheavals from his son Akhenaten's reforming zeal shook these old certainties to their foundations, and forced the momentous question whether a pharaoh was more powerful than his society as represented in the worship of Amun. Akhenaten even moved the capital away from Thebes, the center of Amun's worship, and built Amarna, a city dedicated to his new deity, the Aten.[64]

Amenhotep built extensively at the temple of

Dayr al-Barsha in Middle Egypt to undertake his great building projects.[66] He virtually covered Nubia
with new monuments:

...including a small temple with a colonnade (dedicated to

Kawa and Sesebi.[67]

Luxor Temple of Amenhotep

His enormous mortuary temple on the west bank of the Nile was, in its day, the largest religious complex in Thebes, but the king built too close to the floodplain, and less than two hundred years later it was reduced to ruins. Much of the masonry was purloined by Merneptah and later pharaohs for their own construction projects.[68] All that remained standing was the gateway with the Colossi of Memnon — two massive stone statues depicting Amenhotep,18 m (59 ft) high. Amenhotep also built the Third Pylon at Karnak and erected 600 statues of the goddess Sekhmet in the Temple of Mut to the south.[69] Some of the most magnificent statues of New Kingdom Egypt date to his reign "such as the two outstanding couchant rose granite lions originally set before the temple at Soleb in Nubia" as well as a large series of royal sculptures.[70] Several black granite seated statues of Amenhotep wearing the nemes headress have come from excavations behind the Colossi of Memnon as well as from Tanis in the Delta.[70] In 2014, two giant statues of Amenhotep toppled by an earthquake in 1200 BC were reconstructed from more than 200 fragments and re-erected at the northern gate of the king's funerary temple.[71]

Remains of Kom el-Hettan (mortuary temple of Amenhotep III)

One of the most stunning finds of royal statues dating to his reign was made as recently as 1989 in the courtyard of Amenhotep 's colonnade of the Temple of Luxor. The cache of statues included a nearly undamaged 6 feet (1.8 m)-high pink quartzite statue of the king wearing the Double Crown.[70] It was mounted on a sled, and may have been a cult statue.[70] Only the name of the god Amun had been hacked out wherever it appeared in the pharaoh's cartouche, clearly part of Akhenaten's campaign against the god of his father.[70]

Merenptah (1213–1203 a.c.) Egyptian Museum
Hieroglyphs on the backpillar of Amenhotep 's statue. There are 2 places where Akhenaten erased the name Amun, later restored on a deeper surface. The British Museum, London

One of Amenhotep's most popular epithets was Aten-tjehen which means "the Dazzling Sun Disk"; it appears in his titulary at Luxor temple and was frequently used as the name for one of his palaces, and for the Year 11 royal barge, as well as for a company of Amenhotep's army.[72]

In 2021, excavations revealed a settlement near Amenhotep's mortuary temple, called the Dazzling Aten, believed to have been built by king[73] to house craftsmen and labourers working on royal projects at Thebes, along with its own bakery and cemetery.

A Sed Festival Stela of Amenhotep III was taken from Egypt to Europe by an art dealer. Once owned by Eric Cassirer, it is now believed to be in a private collection in the United States.[74] The white alabaster stela is 10 × 9 cm (3.94 × 3.54 in), but only its upper half survived.[75] Front view: The god Heh, representing the number one million, holds notched palm leaves signifying years and the cartouche of Amenhotep, symbolically raising the pharoah for a million years. Side view: A series of festival (ḥb) emblems together with a Sed (sd) emblem identifying the stela as one made for Amenhotep 's Sed Festival royal jubilee. Top and back view: These show malicious damage where the cartouche was chipped away. Cassirer suggests this was another example of Akhenaten's vandalism against Amun[76] Other gods displayed on the stela, Re and Ma’at, showed no damage.[76] The altered stela may then have been displayed by Akhenaten.

Another striking characteristic of Amenhotep's reign is the series of over 200 large

Ras Shamra) through to Soleb in Nubia.[77] Similarly, five other scarabs state that his wife Gilukhepa of Mitanni arrived in Egypt with a retinue of 317 women. She was the first of many such princesses who would enter the pharaoh's family.[24]

Ancestry and genetics

Genetic analysis has confirmed that Amenhotep III is the father of both the

Pontic-Caspian steppe to South Asia and the spread of Indo-Iranian languages.[80][81]

In 2022, S.O.Y. Keita analysed 8

Sub-Saharan Africans, and East Asians; he concluded that "a majority [have] an affinity with 'Sub-Saharan' Africans in one affinity analysis". However, he emphasized the complexity of ethnic attributions, cautioning that the royal mummies may have had other affiliations obscured by the typological categories, and that different "data and algorithms might give different results".[84]

According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analyses by different research teams have thusfar failed to establish consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins.[85]

  • Granodiorite seated statue of Amenhotep at the British Museum, from its left side.
    Granodiorite seated statue of Amenhotep at the British Museum, from its left side.
  • Granodiorite statue of Amenhotep at the British Museum, Left of Statue above.
    Granodiorite statue of Amenhotep at the British Museum, Left of Statue above.
  • Granodiorite Amenhotep (Left Statue) Close up, British Museum
    Granodiorite Amenhotep (Left Statue) Close up, British Museum
  • Bulls Tail (Left Statue), British Museum
    Bulls Tail (Left Statue), British Museum
  • Belt (Left Statue), British Museum
    Belt (Left Statue), British Museum
  • Feet (Left Statue), British Museum
    Feet (Left Statue), British Museum
  • Left Inscriptions (Left Statue), British Museum
    Left Inscriptions (Left Statue), British Museum
  • Right Inscriptions (Left Statue), British Museum
    Right Inscriptions (Left Statue), British Museum
  • Red Granite Statue, North East side, British Museum
    Red Granite Statue, North East side, British Museum
  • Limestone Amenhotep, British Museum
    Limestone Amenhotep, British Museum
  • Amenhotep wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, c. 1400 BCE. From Thebes, Egypt. British Museum. EA6
    Amenhotep wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, c. 1400 BCE. From Thebes, Egypt. British Museum. EA6
  • Amenhotep wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, c. 1400 BCE. From Thebes, Egypt. British Museum. EA7
    Amenhotep wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, c. 1400 BCE. From Thebes, Egypt. British Museum. EA7
  • Drawing of Amenhotep III bust in the British Museum
    Drawing of Amenhotep III bust in the British Museum
  • Amenhotep III from KV 22 tomb of Amenhotep III Louvre Museum N 521 A, Other inventory number: LP 2114
    Amenhotep III from KV 22 tomb of Amenhotep III
    Louvre Museum
    N 521 A, Other inventory number: LP 2114
  • Depiction of Amenhotep III in the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden
    Depiction of Amenhotep III in the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden
  • A prostrate figurine of Amenhotep III found in Tutankhamun's tomb
    A prostrate figurine of Amenhotep III found in Tutankhamun's tomb

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenhotep III.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Moran 1992, p. 7.
  2. ^ a b c d e Leprohon 2013, pp. 102–104.
  3. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 112.
  4. ^ Loprieno, Antonio (1995) Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
  5. ^ Loprieno, Antonio (2001) "From Ancient Egyptian to Coptic" in Haspelmath, Martin et al. (eds.), Language Typology and Language Universals
  6. ^ Ranke, Hermann (1935). Die Ägyptischen Personennamen, Bd. 1: Verzeichnis der Namen (PDF). Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin. p. 30. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
  7. ^ Beckerath 1997, p. 190.
  8. ^ Berman 1998, p. 3.
  9. ^ Silver, C. (2017). Pharaoh Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/pharaoh-amenhotep-iii-and-queen-tiye-120268
  10. ^ Team, E. (2023). King Amenhotep III. Egypt Tours Portal. https://www.egypttoursportal.com/en-us/blog/egyptian-pharaohs/king-amenhotep-iii/
  11. ^ Amenhotep III achieved unprecedented equality with his wife Tiye, recent study. (3 August 2022). EgyptToday. https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/118093/Amenhotep-III-achieved-unprecedented-equality-with-his-wife-Tiye-recent
  12. ^ Fletcher 2000, p. 10.
  13. ^ Berman 1998, p. 4.
  14. ^ Tyldesley 2006.
  15. ^ a b c Berman 1998, p. 7.
  16. ^ Kozloff & Bryan 1992, nos. 24, 57, 103 & 104.
  17. ^ Kozloff & Bryan 1992, fig. II, 5.
  18. ISBN 0-85698-160-5. Facsimile in Internet Archive: Part III. The Tombs of Huya and Ahmes, 1905
  19. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 154.
  20. ^ Fletcher 2000, p. 156.
  21. ^ a b Grajetzki 2005.
  22. ^ a b Kozloff 2012, p. 194.
  23. ^ Kozloff & Bryan 1992, no. 2.
  24. ^ a b Berman 1998, p. 13.
  25. ^ Urk. IV 1665–66
  26. ^ Kozloff 2012, p. 197.
  27. ^ Lichtheim 1980, p. 104.
  28. ISSN 1388-3909. Retrieved 30 May 2020. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
    )
  29. ^ Berman 1998, pp. 16–17.
  30. ^ Berman 1998, p. 16.
  31. ^ Berman 1998, p. 15.
  32. ^ a b Kozloff 2012, p. 192.
  33. ^ a b c d Kozloff 2012, p. 182.
  34. ^ a b c Kozloff 2012, p. 189.
  35. ^ Kozloff 2012, p. 190.
  36. ^ Kozloff 2012, p. 195.
  37. ^ Moran 1992, p. 8.
  38. ^ Hayes 1973, p. 346.
  39. ^ Aldred 1991, p. 13.
  40. ^ Moran 1992, pp. 61–62.
  41. ^ Berman 1998, p. 22.
  42. ^ Moran 1992, p. 62 n. 2.
  43. ^ Moran 1992, p. 50.
  44. ^ Cline, Eric (2012). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age.
  45. ^ Muhly, D. (1998). Egypt and Eastern Mediterranean in the Bronze Age, levant, Aegean, Cyprus and Egypt.
  46. S2CID 193951672
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  47. ^ a b Berman 1998, p. 23.
  48. ^ Dorman 2009.
  49. ^ Moran 1992, pp. 87–89.
  50. ^ Reeves 2000, pp. 75–78.
  51. ^ Pharaoh power-sharing unearthed in Egypt Daily News Egypt. 6 February 2014
  52. ^ Proof found of Amenhotep III-Akhenaten co-regency thehistoryblog.com
  53. ^ Kozloff & Bryan 1992, p. 39, fig. II.4.
  54. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 119.
  55. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 225.
  56. ^ Smith 1912, p. 50.
  57. ^ "North Tombs at Amarna". Archived from the original on 7 May 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
  58. ^ Fletcher 2000, p. 161.
  59. ^ "Amenhetep III | Theban Mapping Project". thebanmappingproject.com. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  60. ^ Reeves & Wilkinson 1996, p. 198.
  61. ^
    PMID 26808107
    .
  62. ^ Parisse, Emmanuel (5 April 2021). "22 Ancient Pharaohs Have Been Carried Across Cairo in an Epic 'Golden Parade'". ScienceAlert. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
  63. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 223, 225.
  64. ^ Fletcher 2000, p. 162.
  65. ^ The Obelisk Court of Amenhotep III
  66. ^ Urk. IV, 1677–1678
  67. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 223.
  68. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 224.
  69. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 224, 295.
  70. ^ a b c d e Clayton 1994, p. 118.
  71. ^ "Amenhotep III Statues Once More Stand Before Pharaoh's Temple". Latin American Herald Tribute. 15 December 2014. Archived from the original on 25 August 2018. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  72. ^ Berman 1998, pp. 3, 14.
  73. ^ Simmons, Debra Adams, "The New Secrets of Luxor", National Geographic, 12 April 2021 with images.
  74. ^ Cassirer 1952, p. 128.
  75. ^ Cassirer 1952, p. 129.
  76. ^ a b Cassirer 1952, p. 130.
  77. ^ Berman 1998, pp. 11–12.
  78. ^ Hawass et al. 2010.
  79. ^ Gad et al. 2020.
  80. S2CID 195787671. H2b is a minor branch. It contains several ancient samples from Russia, all basal to the rest of the branch, including one individual from the Yamnaya culture and one from the Late Bronze Age Srubnaya culture, both from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe region, and five other Bronze Age samples from east of the Volga river: three from Sintashta and two from Krasnoyarsk. Also in a basal position, there are three modern Russian samples (two from the Altai region) and one Danish sequence. Interestingly, while the vast majority (70%) of H2 modern sequences in our dataset are of European origin, H2b displays a strong South Asian component, with seven samples from Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka. The newly published Sintashta and Middle Bronze Age Krasnoyarsk (Russian) sequences (Narasimhan et al.2018), together with the previously released Yamnaya and Srubnaya, span a period from 5 to 3.5 ka. These, plus the modern South Asian sequences, support our earlier suggestion that H2b was involved in movements east and southwards from the Pontic-Caspian region into South Asia, by documenting its progress eastwards across the Eurasian Steppe. The Sintashta culture in the Ural Mountains, or a "Sintashta-derived" culture (such as the Andronovo
    ), is thought to have expanded eastwards into Central Asia 3.8 ka, reaching South Asia.
  81. PMID 31488661
    .
  82. PMID 20159872
    .
  83. S2CID 206896841. Archived
    from the original on 14 March 2023 – via Griffith Research Online.
  84. ^ Keita, S. O. Y. (September 2022). "Ideas about "Race" in Nile Valley Histories: A Consideration of "Racial" Paradigms in Recent Presentations on Nile Valley Africa, from "Black Pharaohs" to Mummy Genomest". Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections.
  85. ISBN 978-1-000-88066-3
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Bibliography

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