Amir al-hajj
Amir al-hajj (
Significance of the office
According to historian Thomas Philipp, "the office of amir al-hajj was an extremely important one", which brought with it great political influence and religious prestige.[5] Given the significance of the Hajj pilgrimage in Islam, the protection of the caravan and its pilgrims was a priority for the Muslim rulers responsible. Any mishandling of the caravan or harm done to the pilgrims by Bedouin raiders would often be made known throughout the Muslim world by returning pilgrims. The leader of the Muslim world, or the ruler aspiring to this position, was required to ensure the pilgrimage's safety, and its success or failure significantly reflected on the ruler's prestige.[6] Thus, "talented and successful Hajj commanders were crucial".[3] In Ottoman times, the importance of successful umara al-hajj generally rendered them immune from punitive measures by the Ottoman authorities for abuses they committed elsewhere.[3]
Duties
The main threat to a Hajj caravan was Bedouin raiding. An amir al-hajj would command a large military force to protect the caravan in the event of an attack by local Bedouin, or would pay off the various Bedouin tribes whose territories the caravan had to traverse on the way to the Muslim holy cities in the Hejaz.
According to Singer and Philipp, an amir al-hajj needed to possess logistical capabilities and military skills. To procure supplies and ensure safe transportation for the caravan, the amir al-hajj often maintained a network of connections to various Ottoman officials and local community leaders.
History
Muslim tradition ascribes the first Hajj caravan to the lifetime of the Islamic prophet
The
With the
During the Mamluk era, the main pilgrimage caravan left from Cairo. Its amir al-hajj was always appointed by the sultan. The amir al-hajj of Damascus was either appointed by the sultan or his viceroy in Syria. The Damascene commander was generally subordinate to the Cairene commander, normally playing a neutral or supportive role to the latter in meetings or quarrels with the Meccan sharifs or the caravan commanders from what is now Iraq or Yemen.[7] Because the kiswa, the ceremonial covering for the Kaaba, was usually woven in Egypt, it was carried by the Cairo caravan, while the Damascene caravan carried the corresponding covering for Muhammad's tomb in Medina.[1] A few Mamluk sultans made the pilgrimage themselves, but usually their symbolic presence was represented by a mahmal (palanquin), escorted by musicians.[1]
Ottoman era
The role of amir al-hajj was continued by the Ottoman Empire when they gained control over the Mamluks' territories in 1517. Besides the latter year, during which the Ottoman sultan appointed a bureaucrat to the post, the umara al-hajj from Cairo for much of the 16th century continued to come from the ranks of Circassian Mamluks with occasional appointments of important Arab sheikhs or high-ranking Bosnian or Turkish officials.[10] This was followed by a period where commanders for the Cairene caravan came from Constantinople until the early 18th century when the Mamluks of Egypt once again became the favored appointees for the office.[11]
In the 16th century, the amir al-hajj assigned to the caravan from Damascus commanded 100
In 1708, the Ottoman imperial government adopted a new policy whereby the wali (governor) of Damascus would serve as the amir al-hajj.[12][13] With this change in policy also came an elevation of the Damascene commander's rank. His rank became superior to that of the Cairene commander, any imperial Ottoman official traveling with the caravan, the Ottoman governor of the Hejaz in Jeddah, and the Meccan sharifs.[12] The Arab al-Azm family of Damascus were able to hold on as governors of Damascus for lengthy periods partly due to their success commanding the caravan.[14]
When the
The
List of leaders of the Hajj in the Early Islamic period
Under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, leadership of the Hajj was mostly entrusted to a relative of the caliph.
Umayyad period (661–750)
- Umar ibn al-Walid (707)
- Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik
- Abd al-Aziz ibn al-Walid (713)
- Bishr ibn al-Walid (714)
- Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, also known as Second Umar he led several times during 706 to 712.
- Abd al-Wahid ibn Sulayman (747)
- Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik (He led the Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca in August 748).[16]
Abbasid period (750–940)
- Dawud ibn Ali al-Hashimi (750)
- Sulayman ibn Ali al-Hashimi (753)
- Muhammad ibn Abdallah al-Mansur (770), the future Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi.
- Sulayman ibn Abdallah al-Mansur (785, 793)
- Musa ibn Isa ibn Musa al-Hashimi (797, 798)
- Abu Ja'far Harun ibn Muhammad al-Mahdi famously known as Harun al-Rashid he led the Hajj pilgrimage several times.
- Al-Abbas ibn Musa ibn Isa al-Hashimi (805, 812, 813, 814).
- Abu Ishaq Muhammad ibn Harun (816), future Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim.
- Ishaq ibn Musa ibn Isa al-Hashimi (817)
- Ibrahim ibn Musa ibn Jaʿfar al-Husayni al-Hashimi(818)
- Abdallah ibn Ubaydallah ibn al-Abbas was also a leader of the pilgrimage, having led the annual events of 828, 829, 831, and possibly 832.
- Abu al-Fadl Ja'far ibn Muhammad al-Mu'tasim famously known by his laqab al-Mutawakkil(842).
- Abu Ja'far Muhammad better known as al-Muntasir (850/851)
- Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Hashimi (873, 874)[17]
- Harun ibn Muhammad ibn Ishaq al-Hashimi (878–893)
List of Ottoman umara' al-hajj
Cairo caravan commanders
- Barakat ibn Musa (1518)
- Barsbay (1519)
- Janim ibn Dawlatbay (1520–1523)
- Janim al-Hamzawi (1524–1525)
- Sinan (1526)
- Qanim ibn Maalbay (1527–1530)
- Yusuf al-Hamzawi (1531–1532)
- Mustafa ibn Abdullah al-Rumi (1533)
- Sulayman Pasha (1534)
- Yusuf al-Hamzawi (1535)
- Mustafa ibn Abdullah al-Rumi (1536–1538)
- Janim ibn Qasrah (1539–1545)
- Aydin ibn Abdullah al-Rumi (1546)
- Husayn Abaza (1547)
- Mustafa ibn Abdullah al-Rumi (1548–1551)
- Khawaja Muhammad (1584)
- Mustafa Pasha (1585)
- Umar ibn Isa (1591)
- Ridwan Bey al-Faqari (1631–1656)[18]
- Zul-Faqar Bey (1676–1683)[19]
- Ismail al-Faqar Bey (1684–1688)[19]
- Ibrahim Bey Abu Shanab (1689)[19]
- Ibrahim Bey Zayn al-Faqar (1690–1695)[20]
- Ayyub Bey al-Faqari (1696–1701)[21]
- Qitas Bey (1706–1710)[22]
- Awad Bey (1711)[23]
- Muhammad ibn Ismail Bey (1720–1721)[24]
- Abdallah Bey (1722–1723)[25]
- Muhammad ibn Ismail Bey (1725–1727)[25]
- Ali Bey Zayn al-Faqar (1728–1729)[26]
- Ghitas Bey al-A'war (1730)[27]
- Muhammad Agha al-Kur (1731)[28]
- Ali Bey Qatamish (1732–1734)[29]
- Ibrahim Bey Qatamish (1736–1737)[30]
- Uthman Bey Zayn al-Faqar (1738–1740)[31]
- Umar Bey Qatamish (1741)[32]
- Ali Bey al-Kabir (1753-1754)
- Husayn Bey al-Khashshab(1755)[33]
- Salih Bey al-Qasimi (1756)[34]
- Ibrahim Bey (1771–1773)[35]
- Murad Bey(1778–1786)[36]
Damascus caravan commanders
- Janbirdi al-Ghazali (1518–1520)
- The unnamed Safad (1523)[37]
- Uways al-Kashif (1525)[37]
- Kurd Bey ibn Khisru Pasha (1551–52; sanjak-bey of Hama)[37]
- Husayn Bey ibn Muhammad al-Rumi (1553–54; imperial Ottoman official)[37]
- Yunus Bey (1557; sanjak-bey of Homs)[37]
- Murad Bey (1558; sanjak-bey of Ajlun)[37]
- Ridwan Pasha (1560; sanjak-bey of Gaza)[37]
- Darwish Pasha (1567; sanjak-bey of Tripoli)[37]
- Mansur ibn Furaykh (1589–1591; based in the Beqaa Valley)[38][39]
- Ahmad ibn Ridwan (1591–1606; based in Gaza)
- Farrukh Pasha (1609–1620; based in Nablus)[40]
- Muhammad ibn Farrukh (1621–1638; based in Nablus)[40]
- Assaf Farrukh (1665–1669; based in Nablus)[40]
- Musa Pasha al-Nimr (1670; based in Nablus)[40]
- Ahmed Pasha al-Tarazi (1676–77; based in Lajjun and Jerusalem)[41]
- Hekimbashi Khayri Mustafa Pasha (1689; based in Gaza)[42]
- Mehmed Pasha (1690; based in Jeddah)[42]
- Arslan Mehmed Pasha (1691; based in Tripoli)[42]
- Ahmed Pasha Salih (1697–98; based in Damascus)[42]
- Kaplan Pasha (1699; based in Sidon)[42]
- Çerkes Hasan Pasha (1700–01; based in Damascus)[42]
- Arslan Mehmed Pasha (1702–1703; based in Damascus and Tripoli)[42]
- Mehmed Pasha Kurd Bayram (1704; based in Damascus)
- Yusuf Pasha Qapudan (1707–1708)
- Nasuh Pasha al-Aydini (1708–1712)
- Jarkas Muhammad Pasha (1713–1715)
- Tubal Yusuf Pasha (1715–1716)
- Ibrahim Pasha Qapudan (1716)
- Recep Pasha (1716)
- Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha (1716–1717)
- Abdullah Pasha Köprülü (1716–1717)
- Rajab Pasha (1717–1718)
- Uthman Pasha Abu Tawq(1719–1721)
- Ali Pasha Maqtul (1721–1722)
- Uthman Pasha Abu Tawq(1723–1725)
- Ismail Pasha al-Azm (1725–1730)
- Abdullah Pasha al-Aydinli (1731–1734)
- Sulayman Pasha al-Azm (1734–1738)
- Husayn Pasha al-Bustanji (1738)
- Uthman Pasha al-Muhassil (1739–1740)
- Ali Pasha Abu Qili (1740)
- Sulayman Pasha al-Azm (1741–1743)
- As'ad Pasha al-Azm (1743–1757)
- Husayn Pasha ibn Makki (1757)
- Abdullah Pasha al-Jatahji(1757–1759)
- Muhammad Pasha al-Shalik (1759–1760)
- Uthman Pasha al-Kurji (1760–1771)
- Muhammad Pasha al-Azm (1771–1772)
- Hafiz Mustafa Pasha Bustanji (1773)
- Muhammad Pasha al-Azm (1773–1783)
- Darwish Pasha al-Kurji (1783–1784)
- Ahmad Pasha al-Jezzar(1784–1786)
- Husayn Pasha Battal (1786–1787)
- Abdi Pasha (1787–1788)
- Ibrahim Pasha al-Halabi (1788–1789)
- Ahmad Pasha al-Jezzar (1790–1795)
- Abdullah Pasha al-Azm (1795–1798)
- Ahmad Pasha al-Jezzar (1798–1799)
- Abdullah Pasha al-Azm (1799–1803)
- Ahmad Pasha al-Jezzar (1803–1804)
- Abdullah Pasha al-Azm (1804–807)
- Kunj Yusuf Pasha (1807–1810)
- Süleyman Pasha Silahdar (1810–1818)
- Salih Pasha II (1818)
- Abdallah Pasha II (1819–1821)
- Dervish Mehmd Pasha II (1821–1822)
- Mustafa Pasha IV (1822–1826)
- Mehmed Emin Rauf Pasha (1828–1831)
- Mehmed Selim Pasha (1831–1832)
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Hathaway 2015.
- ^ Philipp 1998, p. 102.
- ^ a b c d e Singer 2002, p. 141.
- ^ a b Al-Damurdashi 1991, p. 20.
- ^ Philipp 1998, p. 101.
- ^ Singer 2002, p. 142.
- ^ a b c Dunn 1986, p. 66.
- ^ a b Sato 2014, p. 134.
- ^ Peters 1994, p. 164.
- ^ a b Philipp 1998, pp. 102–104.
- ^ Peters 1994, p. 167.
- ^ a b c Peters 1994, p. 148.
- ^ Burns 2005, pp. 237–238.
- ^ a b Masters 2009, p. 40.
- ^ Rizk, Labib (2011-07-04), "A Diwan of contemporary life", Al-Ahram Weekly, Al-Ahram, archived from the original on 2013-10-23, retrieved 2015-07-08
- ^ Williams 1985, p. 123.
- ^ Yarshater 1985–2007, v. 36: pp. 157, 161, 162; Al-Mas'udi 1877, p. 74 (calling him Ibn Burayh); Ibn Hazm 1982, p. 34.
- ^ Philipp, 1998, p. 14
- ^ a b c Damurdashi, 1991, pp. 28-29.
- ^ Damurdashi, 1991, p. 30
- ^ Damurdashi,1991, pp. 61; 112
- ISBN 9783515057561.
- ^ Damurdashi, 1991, p. 146.
- ^ Damurdashi, 1991, p. 227
- ^ a b Damurdashi, 1991, pp. 227-228.
- ^ Damurdashi, 1991, p. 266
- ^ Damurdashi, 1991, p. 270
- ^ Damurdashi, 1991, p. 271
- ^ Damurdashi, 1991, p. 303
- ^ Damurdashi, 1991, p. 314
- ^ Damurdashi, 1991, p. 320
- ^ Damurdashi, 1991, p. 342
- ^ Philipp, 1998, p. 124
- ^ Philipp, 1998, p. 119
- ^ Creighton, 2012, p. 133
- ^ Anderson, 1998, p. 89
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bakhit, 1982, p. 108, note 104.
- ^ a b c Barbir, pp. 45–46.
- ^ a b c Bakhit, 1982, p. 109.
- ^ a b c d Ze'evi, 1996, pp. 43-44
- ISBN 9781901435030. Archivedfrom the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2020-12-06.
- ^ a b c d e f g Barbir 1980, pp. 46–49
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