Amur leopard
Amur leopard | |
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A captive Amur leopard at the Colchester Zoo, England
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Suborder: | Feliformia |
Family: | Felidae |
Subfamily: | Pantherinae |
Genus: | Panthera |
Species: | |
Subspecies: | P. p. orientalis
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Trinomial name | |
Panthera pardus orientalis (Schlegel, 1857)
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Historic and present distribution of the subspecies (excluding northern China to the west of Manchuria) | |
Synonyms[3] | |
The Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) is a leopard subspecies native to the Primorye region of southeastern Russia and northern China. It is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as in 2007, only 19–26 wild leopards were estimated to survive in southeastern Russia and northeastern China.[1]
As of 2015[update], fewer than 60 individuals were estimated to survive in Russia and China.[4] Camera-trapping surveys conducted between 2014 and 2015 revealed 92 individuals in an 8,398 km2 (3,242 sq mi) large transboundary area along the Russian-Chinese border.[5] In 2019, it was reported that the population was about 90 leopards.[6] In 2021, it was reported the population was about 110 individuals.[7]
Results of
Naming and etymology
The names 'Amurland leopard' and 'Amur leopard' were coined by Pocock in 1930, when he compared leopard specimens in the collection of the
The Amur leopard is also known as the "Siberian leopard",[12] "Far Eastern leopard",[13][14][15] and "Korean leopard".[16]
Taxonomic history
In 1857,
- Leopardus japonensis described and proposed in 1862 by John Edward Gray was a tanned leopard skin received by the British Museum.[18]
- Leopardus chinensis proposed by Gray in 1867 was a leopard skull from the mountains northwest of Peking.[19]
- Felis fontanierii proposed by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in 1867 was a leopard skin from the vicinity of Peking.[20]
- Felis ingrami was a leopard skin from Kweichow in central China, and Felis villosa a leopard skin from the Amur Bay, both proposed by J. Lewis Bonhote in 1903.[21]
- Felis [Leopardus] grayi proposed in 1904 by Édouard Louis Trouessart was a leopard fossil.[22]
- Panthera hanensis proposed in 1908 by Paul Matschie was a leopard skin from Shaanxi province.[23]
- Felis pardus sinensis proposed in 1911 by a German fur trader was a leopard skin from southern China.[24]
- Panthera pardus bedfordi proposed in 1930 by Reginald Innes Pocock was a leopard skin from Shaanxi.[9]
In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group subsumed P. p. japonensis to P. p. orientalis. The remaining synonyms are not considered valid subspecies.[3]
Genetic research
The complete
Characteristics
The Amur leopard can easily be differentiated from other leopard subspecies by its thick, pale cream-colored fur, particularly in winter. Rosettes on the flanks are 5 cm × 5 cm (2.0 in × 2.0 in) and widely spaced, up to 2.5 cm (0.98 in), with thick, unbroken rings and darkened centers.[9] Its fur is fairly soft with long and dense hair. The length of hair on the back is 20–25 mm (0.79–0.98 in) in summer and up to 70 mm (2.8 in) in winter. The winter coat varies from fairly light yellow to dense yellowish-red with a golden tinge, or rusty-reddish-yellow. In summer, the fur is brighter, with more vivid coloration pattern. It is rather small in body size, with males larger than females. Males measure 107–136 cm (42–54 in) with a 82–90 cm (32–35 in) long tail, a shoulder height of 64–78 cm (25–31 in), and a weight of 32.2–48 kg (71–106 lb). Females weigh 25–42.5 kg (55–94 lb).[26]
The North Chinese leopard was first described on the basis of a single tanned skin which was fulvous above, and pale beneath, with large, roundish, oblong black spots on the back and limbs, and small black spots on the head. The spots on the back, shoulders and sides formed a ring around a central fulvous spot. The black spots on the nape were elongated, and large ones on the chest formed a necklace. The tail was spotted and had four black rings at the tip.[18]
Distribution and habitat
In the Russian Far East, the Amur leopard currently inhabits an area of about 7,000 km2 (2,700 sq mi).[27] It is well adapted to the cold climate and heavy snowfall of the region.[8] The association of the leopard with mountainous areas (and snow-free south-facing rocky slopes in winter) has been recorded. It is usually confined to places where wild sika deer (Cervus nippon) live, or where deer husbandry is practised.[26] Leopards cross between Russia, China, and possibly North Korea across the Tumen River, despite a high and long wire fence marking the boundary.[28]
The first
Elsewhere in China, Amur leopard distribution is fragmented, with small populations occurring foremost in isolated reserves. In Shanxi Province, leopards were recorded in 16 protected areas and six nature reserves (including Foping National Nature Reserve) during camera trapping surveys between 2007 and 2014.[34]
Historical range
Leopard fossils from the Pleistocene have been excavated in Japan, but the fossils' subspecies have not been identified with certainty.[35]
Historical records indicate that the Amur leopard occurred throughout eastern Siberia, northeastern China including near
Leopards were extirpated from the Korean Peninsula while under
In China, Amur leopards historically occurred in the Lesser Khingan, Changbai Mountains and Wanda Mountains until the 1970s. In the following decades, the range decreased to a few areas in Jilin and Heilongjiang Provinces.[38] Today, only small and isolated populations remain in northern China, specifically in Jilin.[25]
Ecology and behavior
Like other leopard subspecies, Amur leopards are solitary, unless females have offspring.
Amur leopards are extremely conservative in their choice of territory. An individual's territory is usually located in a river basin which generally extends to the natural
During a study of
Reproduction
Amur leopards become sexually mature at the age of 2–3 years. They are able to reproduce up to 10–15 years of age.
During a population census in 1997, four females found with young had only one cub each. Results of radio telemetry studies confirmed that young stay with their mother for two years. In Kedrovaya Pad Nature Reserve, the young of two different litters were observed with their mothers at the same time.[39]
Threats
The Amur leopard is threatened by
Amur leopards are
Amur leopards are also sympatric with Ussuri brown bears (Ursus arctos lasiotus), but no interactions between the two species have been recorded.[45]
Poaching
Poaching of Amur leopards is the main threat to their survival. Despite evidence of Chinese traders illegally buying leopard skins from Russia, no skins were confiscated at borders to China until 2002 and 2003, where over seven skins or part of skins were confiscated (six in Russia and one in China) over a period of 14 months. Leopards are most often killed by local Russians from small villages in and around the leopard's habitat. These villagers hunt entirely illegally; they have no licenses for hunting or their guns, are not members of one of the local hunting leases, and hunt Amur leopards (a protected species under Russian law).[42] In 1999, skins of poached leopards were offered for $500–1,000 near a protected area in Russia.[46]
Forest degradation
Human-induced fires are another main threat to the survival of the Amur leopard. Setting fire to fields is a habit of rural farmers who start them for a particular purpose, such as improving fertility for livestock grazing, killing ticks and other insects, making scrap metals visible so that they can be easily collected, culling vegetation along train tracks, and stimulating
In the 20th century, large deer farms were built over thousands of hectares of leopard habitat; the velvet of deer antlers was sold to Asian pharmacies.[41] However, the number of deer farms has decreased considerably since the late 1990s.[42]
Development projects
A number of plans for economic activities in south-west Primorye were developed that posed a serious threat to the Amur leopard's survival. A plan to build an oil pipeline from central Siberia through Primorye to the coast of the Sea of Japan was shelved; another plan for an open
Inbreeding
An acute problem is potential
Conservation
The Amur leopard is listed in
In 2001, a meeting was held in Vladivostok with the aim of devising and planning management recommendations and activities needed to ensure the recovery and continued survival of the wild Amur leopard population in range countries. Chinese participants announced the creation of a new protected area in Jilin Province, the Hunchun Nature Reserve.[48] Since 2014, Russian and Chinese biologists collaborate in transboundary monitoring of the Amur leopard population.[5]
The Amur Leopard and Tiger Alliance (ALTA) is an initiative of Russian and western conservation organisations to conserve the Amur leopard and tiger, and secure a future for both species in the Russian Far East and Northeast China. ALTA operates across Northeast Asia under the guiding principle that only cooperative, coordinated conservation actions from all interested parties can save these endangered subspecies/populations from extinction. ALTA works in close co-operation with local, regional, and federal government and non-government organisations to protect the region's biological wealth through conservation, sustainable development, and local community involvement. The Phoenix Fund and the Wildlife Conservation Society provide a local framework for implementing ALTA projects, working closely with many Russian and Chinese agencies. With regard to conservation of leopards, ALTA aims at retaining a leopard population of 35 adult females (100 total) in south-west Primorye and the Jilin-Heilongjiang border region; and creating a second population of 20 adult females (60 adults total) in the former range of the leopard. Conservation projects for the leopard include:[42]
- four antipoaching teams with a total of 15 members in the leopard's range
- a special task force of local police and anti-poaching teams led by the Khasan prosecutor
- monitoring of the leopard population through snow track counts and camera trap counts
- monitoring and analysis of the impact of fires on leopard habitat and the effectiveness of firefighting
- habitat assessment with geographic information system (GIS) techniques: assessment of the role of habitat quality, land ownership, land use, protection status, settlements, deer farms, roads, and human settlements with use of monitoring data and satellite images
- development of land-use plans that take in account future needs of leopards
- support for protected areas in the leopard range
- compensation of livestock kills by leopards and tigers
- a comprehensive education program for school children and students in the leopard range
- support for hunting leases, and an ungulate recovery program
- media campaign to create awareness about the leopard's plight
- support and technical assistance for the new Hunchun Nature Reserve in China that borders on the leopard range in Russia
An oil pipeline planned to be built through leopard habitat was rerouted, following a campaign by conservationists.[49]
Reintroduction into the wild
Since 1996, the idea of reintroducing leopards to the south of the Sikhote-Alin mountain range has been discussed by ALTA members.[15] During a workshop in 2001, the outlines and principles of a plan for the development of a second population of the Amur leopard in the Russian Far East was prepared. For reintroduction to be successful, the reasons for leopards disappearing from the southern Sikhote-Alin in the middle of the 20th century needed to be studied. It was recommended to assess reasons for localized extinctions, obtain support of local people, increase prey in areas proposed for reintroduction, ensure that conditions exist conducive for reintroduction in the selected area, and ensure survival of the existing population. There are two sources of leopards for reintroduction: leopards born and raised in zoos and leopards raised in a special reintroduction center passed through a rehabilitation program for life in the wild.[47]
For successful reintroduction, it is clear that the design of the breeding and release centre (and the leopard management within it) must focus strongly on overcoming the difficulties imposed by the captive origin of the cats. Two necessary behaviours should be acquired prior to release: the hunting and killing of live natural prey, and avoidance of humans and tigers.[50]
During a meeting with Vladimir Putin in March 2009, the Minister of Natural Resources of Russia reassured that the ministry is planning to reintroduce leopards into the area, as well as create suitable and safe habitat, he also stated the government had already allocated all required funds for the project.[51]
Potential reintroduction sites (contiguous patches of preferred habitat) were identified in the southern Sikhote-Alin. Three patches of potential coastal habitat could harbour a population of approximately 72 adult leopards (exceeding the 50 individual minimum needed for a self-sustaining population).[27]
In captivity
A captive breeding programme for the Amur leopard was established in 1961 from nine wild-born founders.[11] A molecular genetic survey revealed that at least two founders of the captive pedigree had genetic information that is not consistent with any Amur leopards born in the wild.[14] Both the American and European zoo populations include contribution of genes from a male founder that was a different leopard subspecies. It has been the strategy of the
As of December 2011[update], 173 captive Amur leopards were held in zoos worldwide. Within the EESP, 54 male, 40 female and 7 unsexed individuals are kept. In American and Canadian zoos, another 31 males and 41 females are kept within the Population Management Program.[52]
In media
The Animal Planet documentary The Last Leopard (2008) is about the plight of Amur leopards in Russia. The television series "Wild Russia" showed a glimpse into the life of leopards. A female leopard and her cub were featured on Planet Earth episodes "Seasonal Forests".[53]
See also
References
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- ^ "Mammals Collected in the Maritime Province of Siberia by the Modern-Graves North Asiatic Expedition, with the Description of a New Hare from the Amur River" (PDF). American Museum Novitates. American Museum of Natural History. 1933. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 January 2022.
- ^ a b c Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O'Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z.; Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 11): 73–75.
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External links
- IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group: Panthera pardus in Asia and short portrait P. pardus orientalis
- ALTA Amur Leopard Conservation
- The Tigris Foundation: dedicated to the conservation of the Amur leopard
- Tallinn Zoo live cameras Archived 22 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ALTA: videos
- WWF Russia: Far Eastern (Amur) leopard
- WWF: Amur leopard species profile, conservation efforts and how you can help
- AMUR Russia/UK
- WCS Russia: Far Eastern Leopard Ecology
- BBC: The Secret Leopards
- BBC: Nature's Miracle Babies. Episode 2
- WWF-US: Amur Leopard
- "Amur Leopard, World's Rarest Cat, Doubles in Population". World Wildlife Fund. 2015.