Anarchism in Africa
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Pan-Africanism |
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Part of a series on |
Anarchism |
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Anarchism in Africa refers both to purported
"Anarchic elements" in traditional cultures
Sam Mbah and I. E. Igariwey in African Anarchism: The History of a Movement make the claim that:
To a greater or lesser extent, all of ... traditional African societies manifested "anarchic elements" which, upon close examination, lend credence to the historical truism that governments have not always existed. They are but a recent phenomenon and are, therefore, not inevitable in human society. While some "anarchic" features of traditional African societies existed largely in past stages of development, some of them persist and remain pronounced to this day.[1]
The reason why traditional African societies are characterised as possessing "anarchic elements" is because of their relatively horizontal political structure and, in some cases, the absence of classes. In addition to that, the leadership of elders normally did not extend into the kinds of authoritative structures which characterise the modern state. A strong value was, however, placed on traditional and "natural" values. For example, although there were no laws against rape, homicide, and adultery, a person committing those acts would be persecuted together with his or her kin. The principle of collective responsibility was sometimes upheld.
Modern anarchist movements
Algeria
The French anarcho-syndicalist Émilie Busquant is commonly credited with creating the first copy of the Flag of Algeria.[2] The anarchist Pierre Morain was also the first person from France to be arrested for publicly supporting the cause of Algerian independence.[3]
Angola
From the 1890s onwards, Angola became one of the destinations for anarchists that had been exiled by successive Portuguese governments,[4] possibly resulting in the development of a syndicalist presence in the colony.[5] Following the 28 May 1926 coup d'état, Portuguese anarchists participated in a failed revolt against the new military dictatorship, after which the General Confederation of Labour (CGT) was outlawed. As a result, in October 1927, the CGT leader Mário Castelhano was himself deported to Angola, where he stayed for two years, before making his way back to Portugal.[6] In the wake of the Portuguese general strike of 1934, the Estado Novo established a concentration camp on the north bank of the Kunene River, to which they deported some anarcho-syndicalists that were involved in the strike.[7]
During the
Chad
During World War II, many Spanish republicans served as part of the Long Range Desert Group and French Foreign Legion during the North African campaign.[11] On May 13, 1943, the 9th Company of the Régiment de marche du Tchad was established in Chad from these Spanish republican volunteers, which included many anarchists.[12][13] In September 1943, the company was transferred to Morocco and then the United Kingdom, as part of the 2nd Armored Division, going on to participate in the Battle for Normandy and the Liberation of Paris.[14][15]
Egypt
The anarchist movement first emerged in Egypt in the late nineteenth century, but collapsed in the 1940s.[16] The movement has reemerged in the early 2010s.
The movement re-entered global view when a number of anarchist groups took part in the 2011 Egyptian revolution, namely the Egyptian Libertarian Socialist Movement and Black Flag.[17] The Egyptian anarchists have come under attack from the military regime and the Muslim Brotherhood.[18][19][20] On October 7, 2011, the Egyptian Libertarian Socialist Movement held their first conference in Cairo.[21]
Eswatini
In 2003, the
At the turn of 2006, 17 petrol-bombings were carried out by pro-democracy militants against state targets. Several democracy activists were arrested and charged with treason, while an article in the Times of Swaziland accused ZACF of having carried out an attack on a police vehicle during a demonstration in Manzini. This claim was denied by the ZACF, who issued a statement to the Times in which they reiterated their support for the pro-democracy movement and stated that the Swazi ZACF branch had denied taking part in the bombing.[23] The ZACF subsequently noted the emergence of an armed struggle tendency within the pro-democracy movement, but they considered this to not be a viable option for liberation, instead proposing the construction of a mass movement for a participatory economy, while not ruling out armed self-defence.[24]
At the December 2007 ZACF congress, it was decided to restructure the organisation, establishing the Eswatini section as its own autonomous group. Members of SWAYOCO subsequently set up an anarchist study circle in Siphofaneni, organizing the transport of anarchist materials from South Africa into Eswatini. Mandla Khoza also attempted to establish a community project in this time, but activity in the following years was limited, due to the poor living conditions of many pro-democracy activists.[25] The year of 2008, which PUDEMO had slated to be the year of democratization, passed without any democratic reforms taking place.[4]
Ethiopia
In the 1960s, students at
In 2020, the Horn Anarchists collective was established to spread anarchist ideas throughout the Horn of Africa, particularly in Ethiopia and within the Ethiopian diaspora.[30] The Horn Anarchists have been active in the campaign against the Tigray War, which they have described as a "genocide",[30] analyzing it as a product of the rising nationalism and a political shift to the right-wing under the government of Abiy Ahmed and the ruling Prosperity Party.[31]
Guinea-Bissau
Between the 10th and 14th centuries CE, the Balanta people first migrated from Northeast Africa to present-day Guinea-Bissau, to escape drought and wars. During the 19th century, the Balanta resisted the expansion of the Kaabu Empire, earning them their name, which in the Mandinka language translates literally to "those who resist". The Balanta organize their society largely statelessly and without social stratification, with elder councils deciding on day-to-day matters. They also practice gender equality, with Balanta women taking ownership of what they themselves produced. Property and land are mostly held in common among the Balanta, with some personal property being allowed for subsistence farming and the means of production being held by individuals and their families.[32]
In 1885, the Berlin Conference brought the entire territory of Guinea-Bissau under the effective occupation of the Portuguese Empire,[33][34] which had previously only occupied a few settlements in the area. During the 1890s, Portuguese Guinea was established as a separate military district, to promote Portugal's occupation,[35] which began to impose taxes on the indigenous population and grant concessions to foreign companies to fund its expanding occupation.[36][37] During this time, Guinea-Bissau was in part used as a penal colony for anarchists that had been exiled by successive Portuguese governments.[4] Indigenous resistance to colonial rule continued well into the 20th century.[38] By the time that the 28 May 1926 coup d'état established a military dictatorship in Portugal, most of Guinea-Bissau had been occupied, administered and taxed,[39] a process that was finally completed by the Estado Novo in the mid-1930s.[40]
In the 1950s, the Bissau-Guinean activist
Kenya
According to oral tradition, the Kikuyu people were once ruled by a despotic king who was deposed in a popular uprising, which instituted a democratic system in the place of monarchy. This saw the establishment of the Ituĩka ceremony, a tradition in which the old guard handed over the reins of society to the next generation, to avoid the institution of a dictatorship.[47] The Kikuyu subsequently lived under a system of social equality, without class or gender stratification, where a federation of councils organized society from the bottom-up. But with the arrival of the Imperial British East Africa Company and establishment of the East Africa Protectorate, the new British colonial authorities reintroduced a centralized autocratic system, appointing chiefs to rule over the Kikuyu.[48] The last Ituĩka ceremony passed power from the Maina generation to the Mwangi generation in 1898.[49][50] The next scheduled Ituĩka ceremony was eventually thwarted by the British colonial authorities, which cemented its centralized rule over the Kikuyu with the establishment of Kenya Colony.[47]
During the early 20th-century, the Ghadar Movement gained support from Indian expatriates in Kenya,[51] remaining active up until the independence of India.[52]
In 1952, the
Popular opposition to the arap Moi government eventually led to the democratization of the country in 1992 and the victory of the National Rainbow Coalition in the 2002 Kenyan general election. Following this period of political opening, left-wing ideas and groups began to re-emerge throughout Kenya. In part influenced by the materials of the Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front,[5] the Anti-Capitalist Convergence of Kenya (ACCK) was established in 2003, as a coalition of Kenyan anarchists and socialists.[57] The Wiyahti Collective was established in 2004 as a specifically anarchist section of the ACCK,[58] with ZACF also establishing contact with the Wiyathi activist Talal Cockar.[4]
Libya
Italian anarchists were among the prominent opponents to the invasion of Libya, as part of a broader anti-militarist campaign against the expansionism of the Italian Empire. During the campaign, the anarchist sailor Augusto Masetti shot a colonel as he was addressing troops that were departing for Libya and shouted "Down with the War! Long Live Anarchy!". Anarchists also organized demonstrations and strikes to prevent troops from embarking.[59][60]
The Nigerian anarchist
The organizing among the
The Libyan anarchist Saoud Salem was among those that condemned the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which sanctioned airstrikes against Libya, and rejected the prospect of foreign intervention by NATO states such as France, the United Kingdom and United States, demanding instead that the rebels be left to "finish the problem of Qaddafi by ourselves".[69] This sentiment was echoed by foreign anarchists, who also condemned the NATO-led intervention in Libya, disputing its "humanitarian" characterization.[70][71][72]
Madagascar
During the 1980s, the
Morocco
Anarchism in Morocco has its roots in the federalism practiced by
Mozambique
From the 1890s, the Kingdom of Portugal began to deport anarchists to jails in Portuguese Mozambique. One of these Portuguese anarchist prisoners was the print-worker José Estevam. Upon Estevam's release from prison in the early 1900s, he established the Revolutionary League (RL) in Lourenço Marques, which became the first known anarchist organization in the country.[57][58][78] By the 1920s, an anarcho-syndicalist tendency had developed among Mozambican trade unions, which were allied with the General Confederation of Labour (CGT).[79][5] Following the 28 May 1926 coup d'état in Portugal, the nascent Mozambican workers' movement was suppressed.[4]
Nigeria
Anarchism in Nigeria has its roots in the organization of various stateless societies that inhabited
Senegal
In 1981, the socialist politician Abdou Diouf succeeded Léopold Sédar Senghor as President of Senegal, overseeing the country's transition to a multi-party system.[84] This new environment of political pluralism brought anarchism into the public light, with Senegalese anarchists establishing the Anarchist Party for Individual Liberties in the Republic (PALIR) at a congress in Gorée, declaring their aim to establish a libertarian socialist society, based around the principles of decentralization, federalism, common ownership of the means of production, and direct democracy. The PALIR's conception of libertarian socialism took inspiration from the social formations of the Lebou and Balante peoples, who organized themselves without social classes or tribal chiefs.[85] It is unknown what became of the PALIR in the ensuing years, due to the lack of studies on anarchism in Africa.[4]
Sierra Leone
With the overthrow of the socialist
South Africa
Anarchism dates back to the 1880s in South Africa, when the English anarchist immigrant Henry Glasse settled in
Swept up in the atmosphere created by what at the time appeared to be a victorious worker revolution in
In 2003, the platformist
Sudan
Following the
Tanzania
The
Workers' control was also practiced in several factories and hotels during a strike wave from 1972 to 1973 over anger at the ineffective workers committees, although the government of Julius Nyerere initially supported the factory takeovers, it later repressed them, with some analysts arguing it was a form of co-optation.[104]
Tunisia
Anarchism in Tunisia has its roots in the works of the philosopher Ibn Khaldun,[105] with the modern anarchist movement being first brought to the country in the late 19th century by Italian immigrants.[106] The contemporary anarchist movement arose as a result of the Arab Spring and the aftermath of the Tunisian Revolution.[107]
Uganda
Zambia
Following the
In the mid-1990s, the anarchist Hamba Kahle Wilstar Choongo, who worked as a librarian at the
Zimbabwe
In the 1920s, the first wave of anarcho-syndicalism spread throughout much of Africa, with the South African Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union (ICU) even establishing a section in Southern Rhodesia.[4] The Southern Rhodesian ICU developed a substantial rural base, responding to the question of land rights with the policy of a union ownership scheme, aiming to establish a "collective, de-colonised and decommodified working class and black ownership".[112] Although the ICU dissolved in the early 1930s, the South Rhodesian section continued to operate as the Reformed Industrial Commercial Union until the 1950s, when the region was incorporated into the Central African Federation.[4]
Following the
With the outbreak of the
Anarchist organisations in Africa
- International Socialist League (South Africa), 1915–1921
- Industrial Workers of Africa (South Africa), 1917–1920
- Industrial Socialist League (South Africa), 1918–1921
- Anarchist Party for Individual Liberties in the Republic (Senegal), 1981
- Awareness League(Nigeria), 1991–1999
- Anarchist Revolutionary Movement (South Africa), 1993–1995
- Workers' Solidarity Federation (Southern Africa), 1995–1999
- Anarchist Workers’ Solidarity Movement (Zambia), 1998–1999
- Bikisha Media Collective (South Africa), 1999–2007
- Zabalaza Books (South Africa), 1999–2007
- South African chapter of the Anarchist Black Cross, 2002–2007
- Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Federation (Southern Africa), 2003–2007
- Wiyathi Collective (Kenya), 2004
- Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front (Southern Africa), 2007–present
- Black Flag (Egypt), 2010s–Present
- Libertarian Socialist Movement (Egypt), 2011–present
- Disobedience Movement (Tunisia), 2011–present
- Feminist Attack (Tunisia), 2011–present
- Horn Anarchists (Ethiopia), 2020–present
- Sudanese Anarchists Gathering (Sudan), 2020–present
See also
- Black anarchism
- Politics of Africa
- History of Somalia (1991–2006), a period without a central government sometimes considered to be anarchy
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Further reading
- "Anarchism and Revolutionary Syndicalism in South Africa, 1904–1921" by Lucien van der Walt
- "Military Dictatorship and the State in Africa" by Sam Mbah and I. E. Igariwey, an anarchist critique of the African military dictatorships.
- "African Anarchism: The History of a Movement" by Sam Mbah and I. E. Igariwey African Anarchism: The History of a Movement – Sam Mbah & I. E. Igariwey
External links
- African Anarchism, freedom and revolution in Africa
- An Irish anarchist in Africa An introduction to today's western Africa from Anarchist perspective.
- Towards a Vibrant & Broad African-Based Anarchism
- Anarchism in Africa An interview with Michael Schmidt and Lucien van der Walt.