Anarchism in Africa

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Anarchism in Africa refers both to purported

Africa
.

"Anarchic elements" in traditional cultures

Sam Mbah and I. E. Igariwey in African Anarchism: The History of a Movement make the claim that:

To a greater or lesser extent, all of ... traditional African societies manifested "anarchic elements" which, upon close examination, lend credence to the historical truism that governments have not always existed. They are but a recent phenomenon and are, therefore, not inevitable in human society. While some "anarchic" features of traditional African societies existed largely in past stages of development, some of them persist and remain pronounced to this day.[1]

The reason why traditional African societies are characterised as possessing "anarchic elements" is because of their relatively horizontal political structure and, in some cases, the absence of classes. In addition to that, the leadership of elders normally did not extend into the kinds of authoritative structures which characterise the modern state. A strong value was, however, placed on traditional and "natural" values. For example, although there were no laws against rape, homicide, and adultery, a person committing those acts would be persecuted together with his or her kin. The principle of collective responsibility was sometimes upheld.

Class systems had already existed in some African civilisations (such as Nubia, Egypt, Axum and the Hausa Kingdoms
) for millennia, but processes of social stratification accelerated from the fifteenth century onwards.

Modern anarchist movements

Algeria

The French anarcho-syndicalist Émilie Busquant is commonly credited with creating the first copy of the Flag of Algeria.[2] The anarchist Pierre Morain was also the first person from France to be arrested for publicly supporting the cause of Algerian independence.[3]

Angola

From the 1890s onwards, Angola became one of the destinations for anarchists that had been exiled by successive Portuguese governments,[4] possibly resulting in the development of a syndicalist presence in the colony.[5] Following the 28 May 1926 coup d'état, Portuguese anarchists participated in a failed revolt against the new military dictatorship, after which the General Confederation of Labour (CGT) was outlawed. As a result, in October 1927, the CGT leader Mário Castelhano was himself deported to Angola, where he stayed for two years, before making his way back to Portugal.[6] In the wake of the Portuguese general strike of 1934, the Estado Novo established a concentration camp on the north bank of the Kunene River, to which they deported some anarcho-syndicalists that were involved in the strike.[7]

During the

attempted coup d'état, after which the radicals were purged from the party's ranks and power was centralized further around the MPLA leadership.[10]

Chad

During World War II, many Spanish republicans served as part of the Long Range Desert Group and French Foreign Legion during the North African campaign.[11] On May 13, 1943, the 9th Company of the Régiment de marche du Tchad was established in Chad from these Spanish republican volunteers, which included many anarchists.[12][13] In September 1943, the company was transferred to Morocco and then the United Kingdom, as part of the 2nd Armored Division, going on to participate in the Battle for Normandy and the Liberation of Paris.[14][15]

Egypt

The anarchist movement first emerged in Egypt in the late nineteenth century, but collapsed in the 1940s.[16] The movement has reemerged in the early 2010s.

The movement re-entered global view when a number of anarchist groups took part in the 2011 Egyptian revolution, namely the Egyptian Libertarian Socialist Movement and Black Flag.[17] The Egyptian anarchists have come under attack from the military regime and the Muslim Brotherhood.[18][19][20] On October 7, 2011, the Egyptian Libertarian Socialist Movement held their first conference in Cairo.[21]

Eswatini

In 2003, the

Manzini, which had been protesting against the suppression of the pro-democratic opposition.[22]

At the turn of 2006, 17 petrol-bombings were carried out by pro-democracy militants against state targets. Several democracy activists were arrested and charged with treason, while an article in the Times of Swaziland accused ZACF of having carried out an attack on a police vehicle during a demonstration in Manzini. This claim was denied by the ZACF, who issued a statement to the Times in which they reiterated their support for the pro-democracy movement and stated that the Swazi ZACF branch had denied taking part in the bombing.[23] The ZACF subsequently noted the emergence of an armed struggle tendency within the pro-democracy movement, but they considered this to not be a viable option for liberation, instead proposing the construction of a mass movement for a participatory economy, while not ruling out armed self-defence.[24]

At the December 2007 ZACF congress, it was decided to restructure the organisation, establishing the Eswatini section as its own autonomous group. Members of SWAYOCO subsequently set up an anarchist study circle in Siphofaneni, organizing the transport of anarchist materials from South Africa into Eswatini. Mandla Khoza also attempted to establish a community project in this time, but activity in the following years was limited, due to the poor living conditions of many pro-democracy activists.[25] The year of 2008, which PUDEMO had slated to be the year of democratization, passed without any democratic reforms taking place.[4]

Ethiopia

In the 1960s, students at

fascist", after a number of students had been arrested by the government, with some accused of being "anarchists" for opposing the land reform program.[29]

In 2020, the Horn Anarchists collective was established to spread anarchist ideas throughout the Horn of Africa, particularly in Ethiopia and within the Ethiopian diaspora.[30] The Horn Anarchists have been active in the campaign against the Tigray War, which they have described as a "genocide",[30] analyzing it as a product of the rising nationalism and a political shift to the right-wing under the government of Abiy Ahmed and the ruling Prosperity Party.[31]

Guinea-Bissau

Between the 10th and 14th centuries CE, the Balanta people first migrated from Northeast Africa to present-day Guinea-Bissau, to escape drought and wars. During the 19th century, the Balanta resisted the expansion of the Kaabu Empire, earning them their name, which in the Mandinka language translates literally to "those who resist". The Balanta organize their society largely statelessly and without social stratification, with elder councils deciding on day-to-day matters. They also practice gender equality, with Balanta women taking ownership of what they themselves produced. Property and land are mostly held in common among the Balanta, with some personal property being allowed for subsistence farming and the means of production being held by individuals and their families.[32]

In 1885, the Berlin Conference brought the entire territory of Guinea-Bissau under the effective occupation of the Portuguese Empire,[33][34] which had previously only occupied a few settlements in the area. During the 1890s, Portuguese Guinea was established as a separate military district, to promote Portugal's occupation,[35] which began to impose taxes on the indigenous population and grant concessions to foreign companies to fund its expanding occupation.[36][37] During this time, Guinea-Bissau was in part used as a penal colony for anarchists that had been exiled by successive Portuguese governments.[4] Indigenous resistance to colonial rule continued well into the 20th century.[38] By the time that the 28 May 1926 coup d'état established a military dictatorship in Portugal, most of Guinea-Bissau had been occupied, administered and taxed,[39] a process that was finally completed by the Estado Novo in the mid-1930s.[40]

Portrait of Amílcar Cabral, leader of the Bissau-Guinean independence movement.

In the 1950s, the Bissau-Guinean activist

Stephen P. Halbrook to consider Cabral as "one of the great libertarians of our age",[45] although this libertarian socialist characterization is disputed.[46]

Kenya

According to oral tradition, the Kikuyu people were once ruled by a despotic king who was deposed in a popular uprising, which instituted a democratic system in the place of monarchy. This saw the establishment of the Ituĩka ceremony, a tradition in which the old guard handed over the reins of society to the next generation, to avoid the institution of a dictatorship.[47] The Kikuyu subsequently lived under a system of social equality, without class or gender stratification, where a federation of councils organized society from the bottom-up. But with the arrival of the Imperial British East Africa Company and establishment of the East Africa Protectorate, the new British colonial authorities reintroduced a centralized autocratic system, appointing chiefs to rule over the Kikuyu.[48] The last Ituĩka ceremony passed power from the Maina generation to the Mwangi generation in 1898.[49][50] The next scheduled Ituĩka ceremony was eventually thwarted by the British colonial authorities, which cemented its centralized rule over the Kikuyu with the establishment of Kenya Colony.[47]

During the early 20th-century, the Ghadar Movement gained support from Indian expatriates in Kenya,[51] remaining active up until the independence of India.[52]

Statue of the Mau Mau freedom fighter Dedan Kimathi.

In 1952, the

Stephen P. Halbrook as "the expression of centuries of anarchism and resistance to authoritarianism, among the Kikuyu people"[56] although this characterization is disputed.[46]

Popular opposition to the arap Moi government eventually led to the democratization of the country in 1992 and the victory of the National Rainbow Coalition in the 2002 Kenyan general election. Following this period of political opening, left-wing ideas and groups began to re-emerge throughout Kenya. In part influenced by the materials of the Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front,[5] the Anti-Capitalist Convergence of Kenya (ACCK) was established in 2003, as a coalition of Kenyan anarchists and socialists.[57] The Wiyahti Collective was established in 2004 as a specifically anarchist section of the ACCK,[58] with ZACF also establishing contact with the Wiyathi activist Talal Cockar.[4]

Libya

Italian anarchists were among the prominent opponents to the invasion of Libya, as part of a broader anti-militarist campaign against the expansionism of the Italian Empire. During the campaign, the anarchist sailor Augusto Masetti shot a colonel as he was addressing troops that were departing for Libya and shouted "Down with the War! Long Live Anarchy!". Anarchists also organized demonstrations and strikes to prevent troops from embarking.[59][60]

The Nigerian anarchist

tribal bonds remaining primary, even within the ranks of the national army.[63] However, Mbah noted that these principles were followed "more in the breach than in practice"[61] and criticized the Libyan government's poor human rights record.[64]

Libyan rebels after entering the town of Bani Walid.

The organizing among the

First Libyan Civil War was described as having used anarchic methods.[65] These included decentralization, with the daily life of rebel-held territory largely being coordinated by the local councils that were established in various cities of Libya at the outbreak of the conflict,[66] and prefigurative politics, with young volunteers self-organizing the solicitation of blood donations, establishment of food banks and the collection and distribution of basic necessities.[67] The role of the Libyan People's Committees was praised by the Syrian anarchist Mazen Kamalmaz, who argued that they should form the foundation of a new direct democracy in Libya, rather than just acting during the transition to a new regime.[68]

The Libyan anarchist Saoud Salem was among those that condemned the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which sanctioned airstrikes against Libya, and rejected the prospect of foreign intervention by NATO states such as France, the United Kingdom and United States, demanding instead that the rebels be left to "finish the problem of Qaddafi by ourselves".[69] This sentiment was echoed by foreign anarchists, who also condemned the NATO-led intervention in Libya, disputing its "humanitarian" characterization.[70][71][72]

Madagascar

During the 1980s, the

anarchist community in Arivonimamo, where decisions were made via consensus, apparently leading to a very low crime rate.[74]

Morocco

Anarchism in Morocco has its roots in the federalism practiced by

war of national liberation against Spanish colonialism, but this effort was not successful.[76] Despite the brief establishment of an anarchist movement in post-war Morocco, the movement was suppressed by the newly independent government,[77]
before finally re-emerging in the 21st century.

Mozambique

From the 1890s, the Kingdom of Portugal began to deport anarchists to jails in Portuguese Mozambique. One of these Portuguese anarchist prisoners was the print-worker José Estevam. Upon Estevam's release from prison in the early 1900s, he established the Revolutionary League (RL) in Lourenço Marques, which became the first known anarchist organization in the country.[57][58][78] By the 1920s, an anarcho-syndicalist tendency had developed among Mozambican trade unions, which were allied with the General Confederation of Labour (CGT).[79][5] Following the 28 May 1926 coup d'état in Portugal, the nascent Mozambican workers' movement was suppressed.[4]

Nigeria

Anarchism in Nigeria has its roots in the organization of various stateless societies that inhabited

Awareness League.[83]

Senegal

In 1981, the socialist politician Abdou Diouf succeeded Léopold Sédar Senghor as President of Senegal, overseeing the country's transition to a multi-party system.[84] This new environment of political pluralism brought anarchism into the public light, with Senegalese anarchists establishing the Anarchist Party for Individual Liberties in the Republic (PALIR) at a congress in Gorée, declaring their aim to establish a libertarian socialist society, based around the principles of decentralization, federalism, common ownership of the means of production, and direct democracy. The PALIR's conception of libertarian socialism took inspiration from the social formations of the Lebou and Balante peoples, who organized themselves without social classes or tribal chiefs.[85] It is unknown what became of the PALIR in the ensuing years, due to the lack of studies on anarchism in Africa.[4]

Sierra Leone

With the overthrow of the socialist

First Republic of Sierra Leone in a coup d'état and the outbreak of the Sierra Leone Civil War, various competing factions began to vie for control of the country's diamond mining industry.[86] The poor working conditions in the diamond fields eventually gave way to the rise of a Sierra Leonean branch of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW).[79] Led by Bright Chikezi, the IWW became particularly active among diamond miners, organizing up to 3,240 workers under their banner.[87] They financed their activities through their mining work, while also receiving financial aid and literature from IWW branches in Britain.[88] However, the effects of the civil war eventually came to a head in 1997, when the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council seized control of the country in a military coup and began looting from diamond workers, forcing many IWW militants into exile in Guinea, where they attempted to organize among Guinean miners.[87] As a result of the coup, the international IWW lost contact with the local delegate in Sierra Leone.[89]

South Africa

Anarchism dates back to the 1880s in South Africa, when the English anarchist immigrant Henry Glasse settled in

Cape Colony.[90]

Swept up in the atmosphere created by what at the time appeared to be a victorious worker revolution in

Comintern ordered the expulsion of the syndicalist faction in the party. Unaligned syndicalists like Percy Fisher were active in the miners' 1922 Rand Rebellion, a general strike-turned-insurrection, and strongly opposed the racism of a large sector of the white strikers. The IWA meanwhile merged into the Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union (ICU) in 1920, one reason the ICU exhibited syndicalist influence.[91]

SAC
-organised labour seminar in Sweden in 2005.

In 2003, the platformist

apartheid.[92] The ZACF was involved in the campaigns of the Anti-Privatisation Forum (APF) and the Landless People's Movement (LPM). It has also been involved in solidarity work with Abahlali baseMjondolo and the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign.[93]
In addition to such work, the ZACF is active in organising workshops and propaganda.

Sudan

Following the

Tanzania

The Arusha Declaration Monument, erected in 1977 to memorialise Nyerere's declaration.

The

African socialist program of Ujamaa, developed by the President of Tanzania Julius Nyerere following his Arusha Declaration, was described by the Nigerian anarchist Sam Mbah as "indisputably anarchistic in its logic and content."[98] The Ujamaa village program encouraged peasants to organize self-governing communal societies, where the means of production and social produce were held in common.[99] Although Nyere himself stated that "viable socialist communities can only be established with willing members,"[100] the Ujamaa program was eventually brought under state control and bureaucracy began to take over the previously self-governing communities.[101] At the behest of the World Bank, the Tanzanian government began to set production quotas and enforced the sale of produce to the state at a fixed price.[102] Mbah held that "corruption and bureaucracy are the two basic factors that led to the collapse of the Ujamaa system."[103]

Workers' control was also practiced in several factories and hotels during a strike wave from 1972 to 1973 over anger at the ineffective workers committees, although the government of Julius Nyerere initially supported the factory takeovers, it later repressed them, with some analysts arguing it was a form of co-optation.[104]

Tunisia

Anarchism in Tunisia has its roots in the works of the philosopher Ibn Khaldun,[105] with the modern anarchist movement being first brought to the country in the late 19th century by Italian immigrants.[106] The contemporary anarchist movement arose as a result of the Arab Spring and the aftermath of the Tunisian Revolution.[107]

Uganda

monarchs.[108]

Zambia

Zambian miners during the 1950s.

Following the

syndicalist ideas, organizing the country's first trade unions. During the 1920s, the first wave of anarcho-syndicalism spread throughout much of Africa, with the South African Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union (ICU) even establishing a section in Northern Rhodesia, although the ICU ended up collapsing by the early 1930s.[79] Nevertheless, trade union organizing persisted, with African mineworkers organizing the 1935 Copperbelt strike over poor safety standards and increased taxes.[109] In 1940, miners in Northern Rhodesia went on strike again, using the leverage of their importance to the Allied effort in World War II
to demand higher salaries.

In the mid-1990s, the anarchist Hamba Kahle Wilstar Choongo, who worked as a librarian at the

ZANU-PF in Zimbabwe.[111]

Zimbabwe

In the 1920s, the first wave of anarcho-syndicalism spread throughout much of Africa, with the South African Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union (ICU) even establishing a section in Southern Rhodesia.[4] The Southern Rhodesian ICU developed a substantial rural base, responding to the question of land rights with the policy of a union ownership scheme, aiming to establish a "collective, de-colonised and decommodified working class and black ownership".[112] Although the ICU dissolved in the early 1930s, the South Rhodesian section continued to operate as the Reformed Industrial Commercial Union until the 1950s, when the region was incorporated into the Central African Federation.[4]

Following the

liberal-conservative party line, instituted by a middle class leadership.[121] Dissilusionment with the MDC led to libertarian socialism emerging from the opposition movement, with some Zimbabwean anarchists establishing the Uhuru Network to organise amongst working class communities.[122]

With the outbreak of the

anti-state perspective for the future of Zimbabwe, proposing mass action as a means to build libertarian socialism.[124] There has since been movements to develop a specific anarchist organisation in Zimbabwe, in the hopes of forming a broad-based libertarian movement against the Zimbabwean state.[125]

Anarchist organisations in Africa

  • International Socialist League (South Africa), 1915–1921
  • Industrial Workers of Africa (South Africa), 1917–1920
  • Industrial Socialist League (South Africa), 1918–1921
  • Anarchist Party for Individual Liberties in the Republic (Senegal), 1981
  • Awareness League
    (Nigeria), 1991–1999
  • Anarchist Revolutionary Movement (South Africa), 1993–1995
  • Workers' Solidarity Federation (Southern Africa), 1995–1999
  • Anarchist Workers’ Solidarity Movement (Zambia), 1998–1999
  • Bikisha Media Collective (South Africa), 1999–2007
  • Zabalaza Books (South Africa), 1999–2007
  • South African chapter of the Anarchist Black Cross, 2002–2007
  • Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Federation (Southern Africa), 2003–2007
  • Wiyathi Collective (Kenya), 2004
  • Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front (Southern Africa), 2007–present
  • Black Flag (Egypt), 2010s–Present
  • Libertarian Socialist Movement (Egypt), 2011–present
  • Disobedience Movement (Tunisia), 2011–present
  • Feminist Attack (Tunisia), 2011–present
  • Horn Anarchists (Ethiopia), 2020–present
  • Sudanese Anarchists Gathering (Sudan), 2020–present

See also

References

  1. .
  2. ^ "Emilie Busquant, la plus algérienne des Françaises". Le Monde.fr (in French). January 26, 2015. Retrieved April 28, 2023.
  3. ^ "MORAIN, Pierre - [Dictionnaire international des militants anarchistes]". militants-anarchistes.info. Retrieved April 28, 2023.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h Autonomous Action; Schmidt, Michael (December 2008). "Autonomous Action (Russia) interviews the ZACF". Situation. Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front.
  5. ^
    Black Flag
    . No. 224. London.
  6. ^ "Mário dos Santos Castelhano". Lisbon: Museum of Aljube. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  7. OCLC 254091732
    .
  8. ^ Alston, Ashanti Omowali (October 24, 2003). "Black Anarchism". Hunter College. Archived from the original on July 1, 2007.
  9. .
  10. .
  11. ^ van der Walt, Lucien; Schmidt, Michael (April 2009). "The Anarchist Movement in North Africa, 1877–1951". Zabalaza (10). Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front: 20.
  12. OCLC 407120322
    .
  13. .
  14. ISSN 0035-3299.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  15. .
  16. .
  17. ^ "Egypt unrest: Interview with an Egyptian anarchist". Retrieved May 4, 2015.
  18. ^ "Egyptian Anarchists and Revolutionary Socialists under attack". Retrieved May 4, 2015.
  19. ^ "An Egyptian anarchist on the renewed revolution in Egypt – Workers Solidarity Movement". Retrieved May 4, 2015.
  20. ^ FEATURES: Anarchists: Preferably Stateless Archived in 2013.
  21. ^ "Anarchist: First Conference of Egypt's Libertarian Socialists (2011)". Archived from the original on May 5, 2015. Retrieved August 11, 2013.
  22. ^ a b c MI; MD (October 5, 2005). "ZACF Member Arrested by "White" Swazi Dicatorship [sic]". Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front. Retrieved December 3, 2010.
  23. ^ Khoza, Mandla; Schmidt, Michael (December 7, 2006). "Swaziland after the Bombings". Zabalaza. No. 7. Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front. pp. 8–9.
  24. ^ Payn, Jonathan (December 7, 2006). "ZACF Statement on Alleged Armed Struggle Tendency". Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front. Retrieved April 5, 2021.
  25. ^ ""The soldier has fallen": Mandla Khoza, ZACF anarchist-communist and Swaziland activist, 22 May 1974 – 26 July 2019". Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front. August 21, 2019. Retrieved April 5, 2021.
  26. Global Nonviolent Action Database
    . Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  27. Global Nonviolent Action Database
    . Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  28. OCLC 252317917
    .
  29. .
  30. ^ a b Anner (March 14, 2021). "An Ethiopian Anarchist Perspective on the War in Tigray". The Final Straw Radio. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  31. ^ Fikir (November 6, 2020). "Ethiopian Anarchist Report: Nationalists Pushing for War in Tigray". Indigenous Anarchist Federation. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  32. OCLC 478894218
    .
  33. .
  34. .
  35. .
  36. .
  37. .
  38. ^ Basil Davidson, The Liberation of Guine (Baltimore: Penguin, 1969), p.66
  39. OCLC 933801895
    .
  40. .
  41. ^ Chaliand, Gerard (1969). Armed Struggle in Africa. New York City: MR Press. p. 68.
  42. ^ Chaliand, Gerard (1969). Armed Struggle in Africa. New York City: MR Press. pp. 45–46.
  43. OCLC 478894218
    .
  44. ^ Chaliand, Gerard (1969). Armed Struggle in Africa. New York City: MR Press. p. 84.
  45. Halbrook, Stephen P. (1972). "Anarchism and Revolution in Black Africa". The Journal of Contemporary Revolutions. IV (1). Archived from the original
    on March 7, 2005.
  46. ^ a b Schmidt, Michael (September 9, 2008). "Nostalgic Tribalism or Revolutionary Transformation?". Zabalaza (9). Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front: 26.
  47. ^ a b Muriuki, Godfrey (1974). A History of the Kikuyu, 1500–1900. Nairobi: Oxford University Press.
  48. OCLC 541972780
    .
  49. ^ Hobley, Charles William (1922). Bantu Beliefs and Magic: With particular reference to the Kikuyu and Kamba tribes of Kenya colony; together with some reflections on East Africa after the war. London: H. F. & G. Witherby.
  50. ^ Kabetũ, Mathew Njoroge (1966). Kikuyu: Customs and Tradition of the Kikuyu People. Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau.
  51. ^ "Jalan Journal: A New Asian Anarchist Voice is Born". Zabalaza (10). Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front. April 2009.
  52. ^ Schmidt, Michael (May 17, 2012). "Assessing Anarchist/Syndicalist History in Five Waves". Cartography of Revolutionary Anarchism. AK Press.
  53. OCLC 557945776
    .
  54. ^ The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (1994) p. 350
  55. ISSN 0040-781X
    . Retrieved February 12, 2018.
  56. Halbrook, Stephen P. (1972). "Anarchism and Revolution in Black Africa". The Journal of Contemporary Revolutions. IV (1). Archived from the original
    on March 7, 2005.
  57. ^ a b MaRK; Schmidt, Michael (2003). "The Global Influence of Platformism Today". Northeastern Anarchist (6). Northeastern Federation of Anarchist Communists.
  58. ^ a b Schmidt, Michael (September 9, 2008). "Nostalgic Tribalism or Revolutionary Transformation?". Zabalaza (9). Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front: 28.
  59. OCLC 455949869
    .
  60. .
  61. ^ .
  62. ^ Robbins, James (March 7, 2007). "Eyewitness: Dialogue in the desert". BBC News. Retrieved October 22, 2011.
  63. ^ Kirkpatrick, David D.; El-Naggar, Mona (February 20, 2011). "Qaddafi's Son Warns of Civil War as Libyan Protests Widen". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 6, 2017. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
  64. OCLC 614189872
    .
  65. ^ Anonymous (May 13, 2011). "Anarchism in the Libyan Revolution". Political Essays, Rants, and Commentary. The Anarchist Library. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  66. ^ "Introducing the Council". National Transitional Council. Archived from the original on June 12, 2011.
  67. ^ "Building a new Libya". The Economist. Benghazi. February 24, 2011. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  68. ^ Gutiérrez D., José Antonio (March 5, 2011). "The Libyan People's Committees should be the foundation of a new life, not just an interim measure". Anarkismo.net. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  69. ^ Salem, Saoud (March 17, 2011). "The signs of the defeat of Libyan revolution". Anarkismo.net. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  70. ^ Confederation of Revolutionary Anarcho-Syndicalists (March 21, 2011). "Down with the new war in North Africa!". Libcom.org. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  71. ^ Tabor, Ron (March 28, 2011). "War in Libya". The Utopian. Archived from the original on January 20, 2012. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  72. Z Communications. Archived from the original
    on July 1, 2011. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  73. .
  74. ^ Graeber, David (2007). Possibilities: Essays on Hierarchy, Rebellion, and Desire. AK Press. pp. 157–180.
  75. ^ Filali, Brahim (October 11, 2005). Michael Schmidt (ed.). "On Pre-Colonial Morocco". Translated by Pat Murtagh. Morocco: Anarkismo.net. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  76. ^ Evans, Danny (November 2020). "Carrying the war into Africa?". Freedom. Freedom Press. Retrieved March 26, 2021.
  77. ^ Le Foll Luciani, Pierre-Jean (December 2019). "Anarchisme et décolonisation en Algérie. Le Mouvement libertaire nord-africain (1950–1956)" (PDF). Histoire@Politique (in French) (39): 16.
  78. ^ "Constitution of the ZACF". Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front. May 5, 2013. Retrieved April 11, 2021.
  79. ^ a b c "Doing the Liberation Lang-Arm: Africa and South Africa after "African Socialism"". Zabalaza (6). Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Federation: 7. April 6, 2005.
  80. OCLC 614189872
    .
  81. .
  82. .
  83. .
  84. .
  85. ^ a b Schmidt, Michael (September 9, 2008). "Nostalgic Tribalism or Revolutionary Transformation?". Zabalaza (9). Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front: 27.
  86. OCLC 900266997
    .
  87. ^ a b Brandstatter, Kevin (1997). "Update on Sierra Leone IWW". Swindon: Industrial Workers of the World. Archived from the original on December 24, 2016.
  88. ^ Chikezi, Bright (March 1997). "Sierra Leone IWW". Industrial Worker. 94 (2). Industrial Workers of the World. Archived from the original on October 31, 2013.
  89. ^ Hargis, Michael (2000). "95 Years of Revolutionary Industrial Unionism". Anarcho-Syndicalist Review. No. 28. Industrial Workers of the World.
  90. ^ Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism. London: Freedom Press. p. 262.
  91. S2CID 220405670
    .
  92. ^ ZACF (October 4, 2010). "What is the ZACF?". zabalaza.net. Retrieved August 2, 2013.
  93. ^ CNT (2011). "Zabalaza: A Voice for Organised Anarchism in South Africa" (PDF). cnt.es. CNT. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved August 2, 2013.
  94. ABC-CLIO
    . p. 745.
  95. ^ a b Schmidt, Michael (February 8, 2008). "Blood, Water & Oil: Fallacies of the Darfur War". Zabalaza. No. 8. Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front.
  96. ^ "Sudan Comprehensive Peace Agreement". Peace Accords Matrix. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
  97. ^ CrimethInc.; Sudanese Anarchists Gathering (December 31, 2021). "Sudan: Anarchists against the Military Dictatorship". CrimethInc. Retrieved January 19, 2021.
  98. OCLC 614189872
    .
  99. .
  100. .
  101. .
  102. .
  103. : 10.
  104. .
  105. ^ Plawiuk, Eugene (February 4, 2006). "Ibn Khaldun; a 14th Century Arab Libertarian". Le Revue Gauche. Retrieved March 22, 2021.
  106. OCLC 799624251
    .
  107. ^ "From the 2011 Revolution to the Revolt of 2021". CrimethInc. February 9, 2021. Retrieved March 22, 2021.
  108. OCLC 466398064
    .
  109. .
  110. ^
    Bikisha Media Collective
    : 13.
  111. ^ Phiri, Malele D. (March 2, 2009). "Unite Against the Minority, then Unite Against the Majority?". Zabalaza (10). Lusaka: Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front: 3.
  112. ^ McGregor, Warren (August 17, 2019). "The relevance of the ICU of Africa for modern day unions and liberation movements". Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front.
  113. ^ .
  114. ^ van der Walt, Lucien; Byrne, Sian; Ulrich, Nicole (December 1, 2017). "South African 'Workerism' in the 1980s: Learning from FOSATU's Radical Unionism". Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front.
  115. ^ a b "Zimbabwe: Repression Against the Working Class Mounts". Zabalaza (4): 7. June 4, 2003.
  116. . Retrieved August 12, 2012.
  117. . Retrieved August 19, 2012.
  118. ^ Munyaradzi Gwisai (2002). "Revolutionaries, resistance and crisis in Zimbabwe". LINKS: international journal of socialist renewal. Retrieved August 19, 2012.
  119. . Retrieved August 12, 2012.
  120. .
  121. ^ "Zimbabwe: Land Invasions and Lessons for the Working Class". Zabalaza (1). Bikisha Media Collective: 6–7. April 15, 2001.
  122. ^ Mutsaurwa, Biko; Monro, Samm Farai (June 21, 2008). "Interview with Two Libertarian Socialist Activists from Zimbabwe". Zabalaza (9). Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front: 14–17.
  123. ^ Maisir, Leroy (September 17, 2016). "Where to now, Zimbabwe? Beyond the "good" charismatic pastor". Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front. Retrieved April 5, 2021.
  124. ^ Maisiri, Leroy (March 9, 2018). "Where to now Zimbabwe? An anarchist/syndicalist perspective after the dust has settled". Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front. Retrieved April 5, 2021.
  125. ^ Maisiri, Leroy (March 18, 2019). "Surviving Zimbabwe: An anarchist critique". Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front. Retrieved April 5, 2021.

Further reading

External links