Anarchism in Belgium

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Anarchism spread into Belgium as

In September 1872, during the

• Victor Dave, born 25 February 1845 in Jambes and died 31 October 1922 in Paris. He was a libertarian socialist journalist and historian, a member of the Brussels Federation of the International Workingmen's Association. He has published numerous biographies including that of Fernand Pelloutier.
• free thought
  and co-founder of the International Workingmen's Association.
• Lucien Hénault, born in 1870 and died on 18 June 1914. Doctor and libertarian communist, he participated in the Circle of Socialist Students before founding, in 1900, Le Réveil des Travailleurs. In 1901, he published in Liège, Le Parti ouvrier et anarchie. Having become a chief physician at the Saint-Gilles hospital in Brussels, he moved away from militant action but remained active as a free-thinker. In 1913, he was president of the association Les Amis de l'Orphelinat rationaliste.^[5][6][7]

From 1880 to 1914

Walloon uprising of 1886

The Walloon uprising of 1886 designated a series of insurrectional workers' strikes that began on 18 March with a commemoration of the 15th anniversary of the Paris Commune, organized by the Revolutionary Anarchist Group of Liège. There were violent clashes between demonstrators and the police, the army was mobilized and the uprising was crushed, causing the deaths of several dozen strikers.

The Friendly Federation of Anarchists (1904)

In 1902, Georges Thonar chaired the "revolutionary congress" of Liège which was a success of participation but gave few concrete results, in particular because of individualism and the fear of any authoritarianism which paralyzed any beginnings of organization. Dispersed in an multitude of trends, the movement proved incapable of implementing its resolutions, of coordinating its action.^[8]

However Thonar continued his project of organizing anarchism. To clarify the positions, he drew up a manifesto, What anarchists want, which excluded from the outset those nostalgic for propaganda of the deed and the "originals" who were not conformist.^[8]

For him, anarchism was located in "an active propaganda, purely theoretical and without phrases", aiming at "integral education" through study circles, schools, conferences, newspapers and brochures. To ensure "the development of personal dignity, of the spirit of independence and of feelings of solidarity", such was the immediate objective of group action. Direct action was not neglected, but anarchism knew that "riots" and "revolutions" are not created "artificially"; that "governmental arbitrariness and capitalist exploitation will push the masses that must be educated as a consequence to a gigantic general strike, the prelude to the social revolution". He did not reject any idea of reform because "the educational action of the struggle waged to obtain them is useful to the working class."^[9]

In October 1904 in

The objectives were, on the one hand, to bring together the anarchists by means of an organization which allowed them to act more methodically, and, on the other hand, to take concrete measures to develop propaganda, whether through conferences, publications or libraries. The organization project, entirely developed by Georges Thonar, in a way leader of the movement at the time, speaks of a libertarian federalism based on voluntary collaboration: each group and each individual retains its autonomy, and no one imposes decisions (which makes it possible to overcome the reluctance of those who fear the appearance of a certain authoritarianism). The organization of the federation was based on three types of gathering: local sections, study and propaganda circles, intended to train members through conferences on both social and scientific subjects; concentration groups meeting monthly and finally the free federation, without statute, holding an annual congress. The publication of a newsletter informs about the state of propaganda and new publications, and its production is carried out each time by a different group in order to develop contacts and avoid excessive centralization.[11] Thonar was appointed secretary,^[12] but he was quickly disappointed because, apart from the holding of an annual congress, few actions were organized collectively.^[1][8]

The libertarian community L’Experience (1905–1908)

In July 1905, the libertarian L’Experience community in

A showcase for anarchism, the colony was open to visitors on Sundays, lectures and plays were given there. The community published many brochures in its collection.[18] On 11 August 1906, it published the first number of the weekly L'Émancipateur.^[14]

The Libertarian Communist Group (1905–1907)

The

On 15 October, a congress was held in Liège to study two questions: the foundation of a libertarian colony and the attitude to adopt in the event of war.^[10] At this congress, Thonar clarified that the group was addressing activists who believed in the need to strengthen the organization of propaganda and solidarity, so the group was relatively closed. The GCL adopted a declaration in which it specified that its aim was to propagate the libertarian communist theories defined by the Declaration of principles adopted at the Congress of Charleroi in 1904.

In July 1905, the libertarian L'Expérance community was created by

In July 1908, at the call of the Brussels Revolutionary Group, largely from the L'Experience colony, an anarchist Federation was formed based on "the free membership of groups, without statutes, without regulations and without a committee". It published the newspaper Le Révolté.^[8][10][1]

The Belgian General Confederation of Labor (1906–1908)

On 11 and 12 June 1905 in

On 16 July 1905, the first issue of the newspaper L’Action Directe, "organ of workers", then "organ of the General Confederation of Labor" then "organ of revolutionary syndicalist propaganda" appeared in Gilly (Belgium).[23] Founded by Léopold Preumont, from June 1907, Henri Fuss succeeded him at the head of the newspaper which was both a propaganda tool and a rallying center for the unions of Charleroi and Liège, which claim to be in direct action.^[24]

On 28 January 1906 in Brussels, the constitutive congress of the new organization was held, a congress prepared by the Union des Travailleurs bruxellois founded by

On 22 October 1893 in Brussels, Henri Willems published the first issue of the bimonthly Le Libertaire, the "Socialist-revolutionary organ of the groups of Saint-Josse-ten-Noode", in Brussels. It contained two epigrams: "Patriotism is the last refuge of a rascal" by August Spies and "Our enemy is our master" by Jean de La Fontaine, and followed the newspaper L'Antipatriote. However, its printer and publisher were prosecuted in 1894 for press offenses, which led to the stopping of publication of the newspaper.^[27]

The first issue of La Débâcle sociale was published on 4 January 1896 in

In 1910, the Revolutionary Federation published the newspaper Le combat social, the leader of which was Félix Springael.^[30] In the first issue, published under the title of Bulletin of the Revolutionary Federation, the Revolutionary Federation declared itself for integral socialism, for a society in which everyone produces according to their strength and consumes according to their needs.^[31]

On 1 November 1902 in Brussels, the first issue of the newspaper Le Flambeau, "Organe de combat Révolutionnaire", came out, edited by Julius Mestag.^[32] "Le Flambeau is not a journal of theory, nor a gossip sheet, it is a revolutionary combat organ, the cry of the oppressed, the expression of a feeling of revolt."^[33]

L’Émancipateur

On 11 August 1906, the first issue of the weekly L'Émancipateur, "Organ of the Groupement Communiste Libertaire", published by the libertarian colony founded by Émile Chapelier, was published in Stockel. Georges Thonar was its administrator and printer. The newspaper ceased to appear in December 1906 after 13 issues appeared. The newspaper Le Communiste succeeded it in June 1907. Its epigraph was "

On 18 September 1910, the first issue of the second period of L'Émancipateur "Communist-anarchist revolutionary organ" came out in Liège. The managing editor responsible for the newspaper was François Requilez. The journal was edited from number 24 by the group The Seekers of Truth. Fifty two issues appeared until March 1913. The newspaper was replaced from this date and until July 1913 by L'action anarchiste. L’Émancipateur reappeared in March 1914 for a new series of twelve issues, until 2 August 1914. Its epigraph was: "We want to establish a social environment which ensures to each individual all the sum of happiness adequate for the progressive development of humanity".^[36]

In July 1921, the first issue of the third period of L'Émancipateur, first subtitled "Organe communiste-anarchiste Révolutionnaire", was published by Camille Mattart in Flémalle. After becoming the newspaper of the Libertarian Communist Federation, the title disappeared in December 1925 to make way for the newspaper Le Combat. Camille Mattart then republished it periodically from 1928 to 1936.^[37]

Personalities

• Henri Willems, born 21 October 1858 in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, is a sculptor, anarchist activist and administrator of the newspapers Le Libertaire and L'Antipatriote. He was sentenced in 1894 for press offenses.

• revolutionary syndicalism.^[39][40]
• Libertarian Communist Group
  , the objective of which was to organize the anarchist movement in Belgium and which was at the origin of the Libertarian Communist Colony, L'Experience in Stockel.
• Illegalist and member of the Bonnot Gang, better known by the nickname Raymond la Science, he was guillotined in Paris, in front of the doors of La Santé Prison
  .
• revolutionary unionism at the start of the 20th century, he was one of the founding fathers of the social security system set up in Belgium, in the wake of the resistance, after World War II
  .

• anarcho-syndicalist activist, founder of the Unified Book and Paper Union of Brussels then President of the National Central Book Industry from 1945 to 1954 and secretary of the International Graphic Federation. On 28 February 1912, he was arrested for his activities in the Bonnot Gang and was sentenced to 10 years of forced labor. In 1922, he escaped from the penal colony of French Guiana
  to reach Belgium where he was involved in union activities, while continuing his commitment to the libertarian movement until his death.
• Florentine Renaissance. He met Errico Malatesta in Italy and Élisée Reclus in Brussels. After World War I, he moved towards communism while remaining fundamentally libertarian.^[44] Living in France, he was excluded from the editorial staff of L'Humanité in 1924 and participated in La Révolution prolétarienne by Pierre Monatte
  .
• revolutionary trade unionist whose goal "is and will remain the suppression of the wage system and the creation of a society without masters."^[45][46][47]
• Fernand Rocourt, member of the Flémalle Grande group, on 7 January 1913, he participated in the Congress of the Belgian Anarchist Union. In 1937–1938, he contributed to the Monthly Bulletin of L’Émancipateur, the main editor of which was Camille Mattart.^{[48][49][50][51]}
• revolutionary syndicalist group and collaborator of the review La Société Nouvelle. He contributes to L’Utopie edited by Henri Fuss as well as L’Action directe of the Belgian CGT. He wrote the preface of Émile Chapelier's pamphlet on the libertarian communist colony L’Experience in 1906.^[52][53][54]
• Jules Moineau, sentenced in 1892 to 25 years of hard labor for "theft of dynamite and conspiracy". He was one of the signatories of the Manifesto of the Sixteen.
• Max Borgueil (1877–1932), libertarian poet and novelist, he collaborated on many titles in the Belgian anarchist press.

• Esperantist, was a pioneer of the libertarian communities movement.^[55]

In 1921, a Belgian Anarchist Communist Federation initially brought together three groups in Brussels, Liège and in the Borinage.^[57]

In 1924,

• Jean-Baptiste Schaut (Adamas), born to Belgian parents on 6 August 1869 in Roubaix and died on 2 August 1953. In 1893, newsagent in Ghent, he was active in the trade union movement and reported, in February 1909, as having spoken in Flemish under the pseudonym of Adamas during a meeting in Brussels. He was the delegate of Ghent at the Belgian anarchist congress held on 25 December 1925 in which twenty six delegates participated and where Hem Day was appointed secretary of the Federation of anarchist groups which published L'Émancipateur then Le Combat journal to which Adamas regularly contributed in 1926–1927. In 1926 he was a member of the French Anarchist Communist Union (French: Union Anarchiste Communiste, UAC) and in August participated in a rally in support of Sacco and Vanzetti. In the early 1950s, Adamas took part in Action Commune Libertaire.^{[59][60][61][62]}
• Léopold Preumont, born in Charleroi in 1874 and died in September 1912, miner, anarchist and trade unionist.^[45]

• pacifist propaganda. In 1933, with Léo Campion, they returned their military notebook to the Minister of National Defense to release themselves from all military obligations and thus signal their refusal to participate in the wars to come. They were finally, after a few months in prison, expelled from the army. During the Spanish Civil War, he went to Barcelona to work on revolutionary anarchist propaganda in a peaceful and non-violent manner. Back in Belgium, he devoted himself entirely to propaganda, continued his publications and gave numerous conferences until his death. He carried out research on various subjects and became an intellectual reference for some.^[63][64]

Without being specifically anarchists, Les Cahiers socialistes, founded in November 1944, brought together independent socialists of all stripes and maintained close relations with groups clearly claiming to be part of the libertarian movement and welcomed in its editorial committee, in 1947, an anarchist activist like Ernestan.^[66]

The editorial line of the review advocated a

The Pensée et Action group was founded on 28 March 1945 following a conference by its leader,

The group publishes an eponymous monthly review which should serve as "a link between all those who, beyond the fray of today and tomorrow, are looking for the possible bases of a free evolution of men in societies".[70] It therefore declared itself open to all, as attested by the formula written on the back cover of each issue of the review: "Pensée et Action intends to seek, beyond any sectarianism, any political or dogmatic ideology, the elements of a genuinely revolutionary culture, defending the merits of the essential demands of the mind and of men!"^[70] Forty-six issues were published between September 1945 and December 1952. From that date until 1970, the review was replaced by Les Cahiers de Pensée et Action.

Action commune libertaire

Action commune libertaire was founded on 2 November 1952,

In 1958, young people, including Stéphane Huvenne,[73] joined the association and offered to organize more spectacular or even violent actions, which caused tensions between the new and the old generation mainly made up of non-violent activists. The young Spanish anti-fascists decided to leave SIA and to join the Libertarian Youth (FIJL), then in exile on Belgian territory since its ban in France on 9 August 1963.^[72]

War Resisters' International (WRI)

Without being specifically anarchist, the Belgian section of the War Resisters' International (IRG) brought together many libertarians. Pacifist and antimilitarist, the IRG was the only association which did not base its rejection of war on foundations of a religious nature. It advocated an integral nonviolent pacifism: "War is a crime against Humanity. For this reason, we are determined not to help any kind of war and to fight for the abolition of all its causes”. The IRG provides concrete support to people who resist militarism and conscription (rebels, conscientious objectors, etc.) and, on a more philosophical level, advocates for "a world without war and a new social order, where all cooperate for the common good”.^[74]

Two personalities of the libertarian movement took responsibilities at the international level:

• conscientious objection
  statute in Belgium.
• Alfred Lepape, born in 1925 and died in 1996.^[78] Anarchist and pacifist militant of Borinage.^[79] He joined the libertarian movement at the end of World War II and was active until 1975. He was the secretary of the Action commune libertaire, and contributed to the Cahiers de l'Humanisme libertaire by Gaston Leval.^[71][80] In 1973, he published four pages on the History of the Belgian libertarian movement.^[81]
• anarcho-pacifist
  movement.
• Fascist Italy. Released, he continued his activity in Belgium.^[82]
• Bernard Salmon, died 8 April 1979. A pacifist anarchist and French freemason, he contributed to various reviews. He was the correspondent and manager of Pensée et Action in France.
• Jean Cordier, born in La Louvière on 12 June 1919 and died in Uccle on 30 May 1999. He was a doctor, freemason, pacifist and individualist anarchist.^[83]

From the 1960s to 2000s

The leftist movement of the years after

“Socialisme et Liberté" was created in 1966 by François Destryker, but it differed from the rest of the libertarian milieu in Brussels. At the time, a few comrades disseminated libertarian ideas in isolation. "L'Ordre Libre", an organ of the Cercle La Boétie, had been distributed by Jean De Smet since 1960. In November 1965, issue 2 of this review appeared, which tells us about the liquidation of the Institute of Possibilities. There was also a Libertarian Center, in premises rented by the Brussels CNT, near the Grand-Place in Brussels.

The CNT brought together other comrades. For his part, Hem Day ran the review "Pensée et Action" and kept alive the libertarian tradition within the pacifist movement and Freemasonry. The anarchist movement in the 1960s was therefore limited to a few individuals whose visions for the future were limited to rehashing the past. "Socialisme et Liberté" also made contact with CRIFA: Commission des relations de l’ Internationale des Federations anarchistes, in France.

“Socialisme et Liberté” defended the following positions:

• opposition to the
  USSR and China, as supposedly socialist
  countries,
• the recognition of historical materialism to understand the evolution of capitalism,
• the insistence on the working class factor as an element of revolutionary change,
• a question about
  unions
  ,
• the need for political organization as a hub for regrouping revolutionary elements,
• opposition to
  individualistic views and his involvement in Freemasonry
  .

Alliance 89 was founded on 7 January 1969, its main objective was to inform and collect documentation on the anti-authoritarian movement in Belgium. With this in mind, it created a documentation center as well as a library which was in its premises at the Maison de la Paix in Ixelles.

Its work was not limited to maintaining a library, the Alliance also published brochures by well-known anarchist authors as well as its own newsletter. The Alliance library attempted to bring together libertarian works. It was formed in the wake of Socialisme et Liberté. It was being developed in a room at the Maison de la Paix, in Ixelles. It was associated with CIRA in Lausanne. With the Alliance, a crossroads was created for meetings. This was the reflexive axis from which various groups claiming to be part of the libertarian movement formed, developed, and disappeared. But the Alliance continued to refer to

First International. The association's goal was "to work on the cultural level for the free development of the human person". Concretely, the group's mission was to provide the most precise and complete documentation possible to activists, supporters, students or researchers wishing to learn about the anarchist movement, its press, its literature and its actions. To do this, it set up a library containing a large number of books and publications on this subject. Its action also included the publication of publications, periodical or not, the organization of conferences, debates, meetings and seminars. Finally, the association supported free education centers or community houses.

A Hem Day Fund committee was also created to manage the documents offered by the anarchist. It was made up of Jean Cordier, Jean Van Lierde, Jean Thys and François Destryker. Indeed, before his death, the anarchist had expressed the wish that his collections be entrusted to the Royal Library

The richness and notoriety of Alternative Libertaire was due to the many links that the newspaper forged over time. Alternative Libertaire was a newspaper written by its readers. A dissident newspaper for different readers.[88] It was a newspaper that wanted to be open to debate. Its goal was not to address convinced activists but to reach out to the periphery of the movement, that is to say the supporters who hesitate to get involved or who by their ideas are interested in libertarian or anti-authoritarian practices.

The visibility of the newspaper was such that even today, it is not uncommon to see copies of its very popular posters^[89] or placards^[90] in bars, associations, libraries or even schools. The openness of the newspaper led the libertarian movement to leave its groupuscular tendencies and played a big role in the propagation of libertarian ideas.^[91][92]

Union Communiste Libertaire Bruxelles

The Union Communiste Libertaire Bruxelles is a local Brussels group that is part of the French-speaking anarcho-communist federation Union communiste libertaire.

In March 2013, Brussels anarcho-communist activists in contact with the French organisation Alternative libertaire founded a local group Alternative Libertaire Bruxelles.^[93]

In March 2018, the Brussels collective adopted the operating principles of anarchist “specifism” (

Especifismo

). The aim is to strengthen the structure of the organisation and to facilitate the insertion of anarchist activists within social movements.

The organisation is structured in thematic fronts of struggle (trade union, feminist, antifascist, queer, social ecology) which aim to coordinate and implement the political line decided by the collective.^[94]

Following the merger of Alternative Libertaire and the Coordination des Groupes Anarchistes in 2019, a new anarcho-communist organisation is founded L'Union Communiste Libertaire. The local Brussels group then takes the name of Union Communiste Libertaire Bruxelles.

Personalities

• councilist current.^[96][97]
• Solidarność
  union.
• Chiquet Mawet, at the same time a playwright, storyteller, poet, social activist and professor of ethics. At 30, she was one of the pioneers of the anti-nuclear movement in Belgium. At 50, she was one of the pillars of the Alternative Libertaire newspaper.
• Yves Le Manach, Parisian of Breton origin, writer and adopted Brussels resident, was a fitter who left the factory to pursue writing.^[99]

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Jacques Gillen, Les anarchistes en Belgique, in Anne Morelli, José Gotovitch, Contester dans un pays prospère: l'extrême gauche en Belgique et au Canada, Peter Lang, 2007, p. 19 à 35, texte intégral.
2. ^ Marianne Enckell, 1872 : Saint-Imier, berceau de l’anarchisme, Alternative libertaire, nº 220, septembre 2012, texte intégral.
3. ^ La Fédération jurassienne et l’Internationale antiautoritaire, Mémoires d'ici, Centre de recherche et de documentation du Jura bernois, texte intégral Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
4. ^ Collectif, Un courant autonome, in Les Anars des origines à hier soir, Éditions Alternative libertaire et Éditions du Monde libertaire, 1999, texte intégral.
5. ^ Dictionnaire des anarchistes, « Le Maitron » : notice biographique.
6. ^ René Bianco : 100 ans de presse anarchiste : notice.
7. ^ Fonds Jan Pellering : notice biographique Archived 9 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Maxime Steinberg, A l'origine du communisme belge : l'extrême-gauche révolutionnaire d'avant 1914, Les Cahiers Marxistes, Le Mouvement social, décembre 1970, texte intégral.
9. ^ Georges Thonar, Ce que veulent les anarchistes, Liège, Publications de L’Insurgé, 1904.
10. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Fonds Jan Pellering : Anarchisme in België van 1880 tot 1914, texte intégral Archived 16 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
11. ^ ^{a b c d} Jacques Gillen, Chapitre 1 : Eugène Gaspard Marin et l’anarchisme en Belgique, in Les activités en Belgique d’un anthropologue anarchiste : Eugène Gaspard Marin (1883–1969), Mémoire de Licence en Histoire contemporaine, sous la direction de Anne Morelli, Université libre de Bruxelles, 1996–1997, texte intégral Archived 13 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
12. ^ * Dictionnaire international des militants anarchistes : Georges Thonar.
13. ^ Dictionnaire international des militants anarchistes : David, Marie, Valentine.
14. ^ ^{a b} Vinz Otesanek, L’Expérience. Une communauté anarchiste à Boitsfort à la Belle-Époque, La Gazette de Bruxelles, 8 avril 2010, lire texte intégral Archived 22 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
15. ^ L'Éphéméride anarchiste : Communauté communiste-libertaire "L'Expérience".
16. ^ Michel Antony, Communes Libertaire et Anarchiste en France, Laboratoire Urbanisme Insurrectionnel, texte intégral.
17. ^ Jacques Gillen, Les objectifs de la colonie, in Les activités en Belgique d’un anthropologue anarchiste : Eugène Gaspard Marin (1883–1969), Mémoire de Licence en Histoire contemporaine, sous la direction de Anne Morelli, Université libre de Bruxelles, 1996–1997, texte intégral Archived 1 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
18. ^ René Bianco, 100 ans de presse anarchiste : Bibliothèque de la colonie communiste libertaire L’Expérience.
19. ^ L'Éphéméride anarchiste : Groupement Communiste Libertaire.
20. ^ René Bianco, 100 ans de presse anarchiste : L’Insurgé.
21. ^ René Bianco, 100 ans de presse anarchiste : L’Émancipateur.
22. ^ Dictionnaire international des militants anarchistes : notice Camille Mattart.
23. ^ René Bianco, 100 ans de presse anarchiste : L’Action directe.
24. ^ L'Éphéméride anarchiste : L'Action Directe.
25. ^ Ariane Miéville, Maurizio Antonioli, Anarchisme & Syndicalisme. Le Congrès Anarchiste International d’Amsterdam (1907), Nautilus/Éditions du Monde libertaire, 1997, texte intégral.
26. ^ Guillaume Davranche, Août 1907 : Le congrès d’Amsterdam veut clarifier l’anarchisme, Alternative libertaire, nº 164, luillet-août 2007, texte intégral.
27. ^ L'Éphéméride anarchiste : Le Libertaire.
28. ^ René Bianco, 100 ans de presse anarchiste : La Débâcle sociale.
29. ^ René Bianco, 100 ans de presse anarchiste : Pour l’anarchiste Jules Moineau – Ensival, Au bureau de La Débâcle sociale.
30. ^ L'Éphéméride anarchiste : Le Combat Social.
31. ^ Dictionnaire des anarchistes : Félix Springael.
32. ^ Dictionnaire des anarchistes : Julius Mestag.
33. ^ L'Éphéméride anarchiste : Le Flambeau.
34. ^ L'Éphéméride anarchiste : L'Émancipateur, première époque.
35. ^ Sommaires du journal L’Émancipateur (1906), lire en ligne
36. ^ L'Éphéméride anarchiste : L'Émancipateur, deuxième époque.
37. ^ L'Éphéméride anarchiste : L'Émancipateur, troisième époque.
38. ^ Jean Stengers, Les pratiques anticonceptionnelles dans le mariage au XIXe et au XXe siècles : problèmes humains et attitudes religieuses in Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, tome 49, 1971, page 1147.
39. ^ Romain Ducoulombier, Les socialistes dans l'Europe en guerre : Réseaux, parcours, expériences, 1914–1918, sous la direction de Romain Ducoulombier, Fondation Jean Jaurès, L'Harmattan, 2010, page 131.
40. ^ Pol Defosse, Dictionnaire historique de la laïcité en Belgique, Luc Pire Éditions, 2005, page 197.
41. ^ Catalogue général des éditions et collections anarchistes francophones : De Behogne, imprimerie (Bruxelles et Herstal).
42. ^ Christophe Verbruggen, Het egonetwerk van Reiner Leven en George Sarton als toegang tot transnational intellectueel engagement in Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine, nº 38, 2008, note 5 page 91.
43. ^ Hathi Trust, University of Michigan, notice.
44. ^ Dictionnaire des anarchistes, « Le Maitron » : notice biographique.
45. ^ ^{a b} Dictionnaire des anarchistes, « Le Maitron » : notice biographique.
46. ^ René Bianco : 100 ans de presse anarchiste – notice.
47. ^ Dictionnaire international des militants anarchistes : notice Henri Fuss.
48. ^ Dictionnaire des anarchistes, « Le Maitron » : notice biographique.
49. ^ René Bianco : 100 ans de presse anarchiste – notice.
50. ^ Dictionnaire international des militants anarchistes : notice biographique.
51. ^ Fonds Jan Pellering : notice biographique Archived 9 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
52. ^ Dictionnaire des anarchistes, « Le Maitron » : notice biographique.
53. ^ René Bianco : 100 ans de presse anarchiste : notice.
54. ^ Dictionnaire international des militants anarchistes : notice biographique.
55. ^ Xavier Vanandruel, Dirk Dumon, Gassy Marin, Tour du vieux monde d'un anarchiste espérantiste : 1928–1938, Artisans-Voyageurs, coll. Les Géonautes, 2017, présentation en ligne.
56. ^ Collectif, Divisions, in Les Anars des origines à hier soir, Éditions Alternative libertaire et Éditions du Monde libertaire, 1999, texte intégral.
57. ^ ^{a b c} Nicolas Inghels, Le Mouvement anarchiste en Belgique francophone de 1945 à 1970, Université libre de Bruxelles, 2002, Mise en contexte Archived 10 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
58. ^ L'Éphéméride anarchiste : Buenaventura Durruti .
59. ^ Dictionnaire des anarchistes, « Le Maitron » : notice biographique.
60. ^ Dictionnaire biographique des militants du mouvement ouvrier belge, Bruxelles, Éditions Vie ouvrière, 1995.
61. ^ Dictionnaire international des militants anarchistes : "Adamas", Schaut, Jean Baptiste dit.
62. ^ Fonds Jan Pellering : Jean-Baptiste Schaut Archived 9 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
63. Nouvelle biographie nationale de Belgique, Académie Royale de Belgique, vol. 5, 1999, p. 199-201, Table alphabétique des notices
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64. ^ Fonds Jan Pellering : Marcel Dieu Archived 9 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
65. ^ Nicolas Inghels, Le mouvement anarchiste en Belgique francophone de 1945 à 1970, Université libre de Bruxelles, 2002, Tentatives de reconstruction Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
66. ^ Nicolas Inghels, Le mouvement anarchiste en Belgique francophone de 1945 à 1970, Université libre de Bruxelles, 2002, Les Cahiers socialistes, Revue indépendante de critique sociale Archived 12 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
67. ^ Manifeste aux hommes de bonne volonté, in Les Cahiers Socialistes, revue indépendante de critique sociale, Bruxelles, nº 1, novembre 1944.
68. ^ Laetitia Verhulst, L’aventure des Cahiers socialistes : revue indépendante de critique sociale : novembre 1944 – novembre 1953, mémoire de licence, UCL, 2001.
69. ^ Nicolas Inghels, Le mouvement anarchiste en Belgique francophone de 1945 à 1970, Université libre de Bruxelles, 2002, Pensée et Action Archived 31 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
70. ^ ^{a b} Hem Day, Éditorial in Pensée et Action, nº 1, 20 septembre 1945, p. 1.
71. ^ ^{a b} Dictionnaire international des militants anarchistes : LEPAPE, Alfred.
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73. ^ Mélanie Bost, Florence Gillet, Le Militantisme antifranquiste en photos, Centre d'études guerre et société, texte intégral Archived 1 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
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75. ^ François Destryker, L’objection de conscience en Belgique, Anarchisme et non-violence nº 20/21, janvier/avril 1970, texte intégral.
76. ^ Xavier Bekaert, Le Milieu libertaire, entretien avec Jean Van Lierde, MIR-IRG, 2013, lire en ligne.
77. ^ Fonds Jan Pellering : notice biographique Archived 9 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
78. ^ Mundaneum : Papiers personnels Alfred Lepape.
79. ^ Fonds Jan Pellering : Alfred Lepape, notice Archived 9 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
80. ^ René Bianco, 100 ans de presse anarchiste : Alfred Lepape.
81. ^ Centre International de Recherches sur l'Anarchisme (Lausanne) : Alfred Lepape, Histoire du mouvement libertaire belge, Dour (Belgique), 1973, notice.
82. ^ Anne Morelli, La participation des immigrés italiens à la Résistance belge, Roma, Ministero Affari esteri, 1982.
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85. ^ "Yves Thelen". editions-harmattan.fr..
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Bibliography

In French

• Jan Moulaert, Le mouvement anarchiste en Belgique 1870–1914, Quorum, 1996,
  ISBN 9782930014739, extraits en ligne
• Jan Moulaert, La peur du rouge et du noir : la genèse du péril anarchiste en Belgique, in La peur du rouge, Pascal Delwit et José Gotovitch, Université libre de Bruxelles, 1996.
• Nicolas Inghels, Le mouvement anarchiste en Belgique francophone de 1945 à 1970, Mémoire de licence en Histoire contemporaine, sous la direction de José Gotovitch, Université libre de Bruxelles, 2002, texte intégral Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine & texte intégral Archived 14 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
• Nicolas Inghels, Histoire du mouvement anarchiste en Belgique francophone de 1945 à aujourd'hui, revue Dissidences, 3 novembre 2011, lire en ligne.
• Jean De Meur, L'Anarchisme [en Belgique] ou la contestation permanente, Bruxelles, De Méyère, 1970, Centre International de Recherches sur l'Anarchisme (Lausanne), notice bibliographique.
• Anton Constandse, L'anarchisme en Belgique in L'anarchisme aux Pays-Bas et en Flandre, Septentrion, 1980, lire en ligne.
• ISBN 978-90-5201-309-1, lire en ligne
  .
• Jacques Gillen, Les activités en Belgique d’un anthropologue anarchiste : Eugène Gaspard Marin (1883–1969), Mémoire de licence en Histoire contemporaine, sous la direction de Anne Morelli, Université libre de Bruxelles, 1996–1997, texte intégral Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
• Collectif, Dictionnaire biographique des militants du mouvement ouvrier en Belgique, Bruxelles, Éditions Vie ouvrière, 1995.
• Mundaneum : Fonds et collections relatifs à l’anarchisme.
• Pieter Ballon, Le mouvement syndicaliste révolutionnaire à Liège pendant l'entre-deux-guerres, Revue Belge d’histoire contemporaine, XXVIII, 1998, texte intégral.
• Michel Antony, Anarchisme belge, mouvements et utopies libertaires, lien vers texte intégra.
• Didier Karolinski, Le mouvement anarchiste en Wallonie et à Bruxelles, mémoire de licence, Université de Liège, 1983.
• Nouvelle Biographie Nationale, Académie Royale de Belgique, table alphabétique des notices
  .
• Maxime Steinberg, À l'origine du communisme belge : l'extrême-gauche révolutionnaire d'avant 1914, Les Cahiers Marxistes, Le Mouvement social, December 1970, texte intégral.
• Jacques Cordier, Littérature prolétarienne en Wallonie, Éditions Plein Chant, 1983.
• Jean Puissant, Introduction du Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier en Belgique,
  Dictionnaire biographique, mouvement ouvrier, mouvement social, lire en ligne
  .

In Dutch

• Jan Moulaert, « Anarchie, que ton règne arrive ! » : De anarchistische beweging in België 1880–1914, Thèse de doctorat, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1993.
• Pieter Ballon, « Et le verbe sera haïr » : De revolutionair-syndikalistische beweging in Luik tijdens het interbellum, Mémoire de licence, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1995.
• Peter De Lannoy, Anarchisme in België tijdens het interbellum : Organisatorische onmacht troef, Mémoire de licence, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1993.
• Fonds Jan Pellering : Anarchisten actief in België, biografische aantekeningen.
• Fonds Jan Pellering : Anarchisme in België van 1880 tot 1914, hele tekst.

In English

• Erik Buelinckx, Proudhon’s influence in Belgium: nationalism and culture, 2009, read online.