Anatomical terms of location

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Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the

anatomical axes
.

The meaning of terms that are used can change depending on whether an organism is

quadrupedal. Additionally, for some animals such as invertebrates
, some terms may not have any meaning at all; for example, an animal that is radially symmetrical will have no anterior surface, but can still have a description that a part is close to the middle ("proximal") or further from the middle ("distal").

International organisations have determined vocabularies that are often used as standards for subdisciplines of anatomy. For example,

medical doctors
, to have a standard set of terms to communicate clearly the position of a structure.

Introduction

Because of differences in the way humans and other animals are structured, different terms are used according to the neuraxis and whether an animal is a vertebrate or invertebrate.

Standard

anatomists to precisely delineate and communicate information about animal bodies and their organs, even though the meaning of some of the terms often is context-sensitive.[1][2] Much of this information has been standardised in internationally agreed vocabularies for humans (Terminologia Anatomica)[2] and animals (Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria).[1]

Different terms are used for groups of creatures with different body layouts, such as

quadrupeds.[1] The reasoning is that the neuraxis is different between the two groups, and so is what is considered the standard anatomical position, such as how humans tend to be standing upright and with their arms reaching forward.[2] Thus, the "top" of a human is the head, whereas the "top" of a dog would be the back, and the "top" of a flounder may be on either the left or right side. Unique terms are also used to describe invertebrates as well, because of their wider variety of shapes and symmetry.[3]

Standard anatomical position

A male and female human in the standard anatomical position

Because animals can change orientation with respect to their environment, and because appendages like limbs and tentacles can change position with respect to the main body, terms to describe position need to refer to an animal when it is in its standard anatomical position.[1] This means descriptions as if the organism is in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures.[1] In humans, this refers to the body in a standing position with arms at the side and palms facing forward, with thumbs out and to the sides.[2][1]

Combined terms

Anatomical terms can be combined to be more specific. This is a dorsolateral view of the frog Mantophryne insignis.

Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a movement relative to the body. For example, "anterolateral" indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis (such as the bulk of the pectoralis major muscle).

In

posterior body wall.[4] Combined terms were once generally hyphenated, but the modern tendency is to omit the hyphen.[5]

Planes

Anatomical planes in a human

Anatomical terms describe structures with relation to four main anatomical planes:[2]

  1. The median plane, which divides the body into left and right.[2][6] This passes through the head, spinal cord, navel, and, in many animals, the tail.[6]
  2. The sagittal planes, which are parallel to the median plane.[1]
  3. The frontal plane, also called the coronal plane, which divides the body into front and back.[2]
  4. The horizontal plane, also known as the transverse plane, which is perpendicular to the other two planes.[2] In a human, this plane is parallel to the ground; in a quadruped, this divides the animal into anterior and posterior sections.[3]

Axes

Organisms where the ends of the long axis are distinct (Paramecium caudatum, above, and Stentor roeselii, below)

The axes of the body are lines drawn about which an organism is roughly symmetrical.[7] To do this, distinct ends of an organism are chosen, and the axis is named according to those directions. An organism that is symmetrical on both sides has three main axes that intersect at right angles.[3] An organism that is round or not symmetrical may have different axes.[3] Example axes are:

  • The anteroposterior axis[8]
  • The cephalocaudal axis[9]
  • The dorsoventral axis[10]

Examples of axes in specific animals are shown below.

  • Anatomical axes in a human, similar for other orthograde bipedal vertebrates
    Anatomical axes in a human, similar for other orthograde bipedal vertebrates
  • Anatomical axes and directions in a fish
    Anatomical axes and directions in a fish
  • Spheroid or near-spheroid organs such as testes may be measured by long and short axes.[11]
    testes may be measured by long and short axes.[11]

Modifiers

Terms can be modified with prefixes and suffixes. In this image showing the jellyfish species Chrysaora, the prefix 'ab-', is used to indicate something that is 'away from' the mouth, for example the aboral. Other terms are combined to indicate axes, such as proximodistal axis.

Several terms are commonly seen and used as prefixes:

Other terms are used as suffixes, added to the end of words:

  • -ad (from
    Latin ab) are used to indicate that something is towards (-ad) or away from (-ab) something else.[17][18] For example, "distad" means "in the distal direction", and "distad of the femur" means "beyond the femur in the distal direction". Further examples may include cephalad (towards the cephalic end), craniad, and proximad.[19]

Main terms

Superior and inferior

Superior (from

chest but inferior to the head
.

Anterior and posterior

Anterior (from

Latin post 'after') describes what is to the back of something.[23] For example, for a dog the nose is anterior to the eyes and the tail is considered the most posterior part; for many fish the gill
openings are posterior to the eyes but anterior to the tail.

Medial and lateral

These terms describe how close something is to the midline, or the medial plane.

Latin medius 'middle') describes structures close to the midline,[2] or closer to the midline than another structure. For example, in a human, the arms are lateral to the torso. The genitals
are medial to the legs. Temporal has a similar meaning to lateral but is restricted to the head.

The terms "left" and "right" are sometimes used, or their Latin alternatives (

Latin: sinister, lit.
'left'). However, it is preferred to use more precise terms where possible.

Terms derived from lateral include:

Latin 'knock-kneed' ) are terms used to describe a state in which a part further away is abnormally placed towards (varus) or away from (valgus) the midline.[28]

Proximal and distal

Anatomical directional reference

The terms proximal (from

Latin distare 'to stand away from') are used to describe parts of a feature that are close to or distant from the main mass of the body, respectively.[29]
Thus the upper arm in humans is proximal and the hand is distal.

"Proximal and distal" are frequently used when describing

fins, tentacles, and limbs. Although the direction indicated by "proximal" and "distal" is always respectively towards or away from the point of attachment, a given structure can be either proximal or distal in relation to another point of reference. Thus the elbow is distal to a wound on the upper arm, but proximal to a wound on the lower arm.[30]

The terms are also applied to internal anatomy, such as to the reproductive tract of snails. Unfortunately, different authors use the terms in opposite senses. Some consider "distal" as further from a point of origin near the centre of the body and others as further from where the organ reaches the body's surface; or other points of origin may be envisaged.[31]

This terminology is also employed in molecular biology and therefore by extension is also used in chemistry, specifically referring to the atomic loci of molecules from the overall moiety of a given compound.[32]

Central and peripheral

Central and peripheral refer to the distance towards and away from the centre of something.[33] That might be an organ, a region in the body, or an anatomical structure. For example, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous systems.

Central (from

Latin centralis) describes something close to the centre.[33] For example, the great vessels
run centrally through the body; many smaller vessels branch from these.

Peripheral (from

Latin peripheria, originally from Ancient Greek) describes something further away from the centre of something.[34]
For example, the arm is peripheral to the body.

Superficial and deep

These terms refer to the distance of a structure from the surface.[2]

Deep (from

Latin profundus 'due to depth').[1][36]

Superficial (from

subcutis
.

Dorsal and ventral

These two terms, used in anatomy and embryology, describe something at the back (dorsal) or front/belly (ventral) of an organism.[2]

The dorsal (from

Latin dorsum 'back') surface of an organism refers to the back, or upper side, of an organism. If talking about the skull, the dorsal side is the top.[38]

The ventral (from

Latin venter 'belly') surface refers to the front, or lower side, of an organism.[38]

For example, in a fish, the

anal fin, but ventral to the dorsal fin
.

Rostral, cranial, and caudal

In the human skull, the terms rostral and caudal are adapted to the curved neuraxis of Hominidae, rostrocaudal meaning the region on C shape connecting rostral and caudal regions.

Specific terms exist to describe how close or far something is to the head or tail of an animal. To describe how close to the head of an animal something is, three distinct terms are used:

  • Rostral (from
    Latin rostrum 'beak, nose') describes something situated toward the oral or nasal region, or in the case of the brain, toward the tip of the frontal lobe.[39]
  • Cranial (from Greek κρανίον 'skull') or cephalic (from Greek κεφαλή 'head') describes how close something is to the head of an organism.[40]
  • Caudal (from
    Latin cauda 'tail') describes how close something is to the trailing end of an organism.[41]

For example, in horses, the eyes are caudal to the nose and rostral to the back of the head.

These terms are generally preferred in veterinary medicine and not used as often in human medicine.[42][43][44] In humans, "cranial" and "cephalic" are used to refer to the skull, with "cranial" being used more commonly. The term "rostral" is rarely used in human anatomy, apart from embryology, and refers more to the front of the face than the superior aspect of the organism. Similarly, the term "caudal" is used more in embryology and only occasionally used in human anatomy.[2] This is because the brain is situated at the superior part of the head whereas the nose is situated in the anterior part. Thus, the "rostrocaudal axis" refers to a C shape (see image).

Other terms and special cases

Anatomical landmarks

The location of anatomical structures can also be described in relation to different

anatomical landmarks. They are used in anatomy, surface anatomy, surgery, and radiology.[45]

Structures may be described as being at the level of a specific

lumbar vertebra "L3". Because the sacrum
and coccyx are fused, they are not often used to provide the location.

References may also take origin from

.

Anatomical lines are used to describe anatomical location. For example, the mid-clavicular line is used as part of the cardiac exam in medicine to feel the apex beat of the heart.

Mouth and teeth

Special terms are used to describe the mouth and teeth.

Latin palatum 'palate') referring to structures close to the cheek and hard palate respectively.[48]

Hands and feet

Anatomical terms used to describe a human hand

Several anatomical terms are particular to the hands and feet.[2]

Additional terms may be used to avoid confusion when describing the surfaces of the hand and what is the "anterior" or "posterior" surface. The term "anterior", while anatomically correct, can be confusing when describing the

dorsal venous arch
is so named because it is on the dorsal side of the foot.

In humans, volar can also be used synonymously with palmar to refer to the underside of the palm, but plantar is used exclusively to describe the sole. These terms describe location as palmar and plantar; For example, volar pads are those on the underside of hands or fingers; the plantar surface describes the sole of the heel, foot or toes.

Similarly, in the forearm, for clarity, the sides are named after the bones. Structures closer to the radius are radial, structures closer to the ulna are ulnar, and structures relating to both bones are referred to as radioulnar. Similarly, in the lower leg, structures near the tibia (shinbone) are tibial and structures near the fibula are fibular (or peroneal).

Rotational direction

bimanual examination facing towards the rectum
(right)

Anteversion and retroversion are complementary terms describing an anatomical structure that is rotated forwards (towards the front of the body) or backwards (towards the back of the body), relative to some other position. They are particularly used to describe the curvature of the uterus.[49][50]

Other directional terms

Several other terms are also used to describe location. These terms are not used to form the fixed axes. Terms include:

Specific animals and other organisms

Different terms are used because of different body plans in animals, whether animals stand on one or two legs, and whether an animal is symmetrical or not, as discussed above. For example, as humans are approximately bilaterally symmetrical organisms, anatomical descriptions usually use the same terms as those for other vertebrates.[59] However, humans stand upright on two legs, meaning their anterior/posterior and ventral/dorsal directions are the same, and the inferior/superior directions are necessary.[60] Humans do not have a beak, so a term such as "rostral" used to refer to the beak in some animals is instead used to refer to part of the brain;[61] humans do also not have a tail so a term such as "caudal" that refers to the tail end may also be used in humans and animals without tails to refer to the hind part of the body.[62]

In

invertebrates, the large variety of body shapes presents a difficult problem when attempting to apply standard directional terms. Depending on the organism, some terms are taken by analogy from vertebrate anatomy, and appropriate novel terms are applied as needed. Some such borrowed terms are widely applicable in most invertebrates; for example proximal, meaning "near" refers to the part of an appendage nearest to where it joins the body, and distal, meaning "standing away from" is used for the part furthest from the point of attachment. In all cases, the usage of terms is dependent on the body plan
of the organism.

  • Anatomical terms of location in a dog
    Anatomical terms of location in a dog
  • Anatomical terms of location in a kangaroo
    Anatomical terms of location in a kangaroo
  • Anatomical terms of location in a fish
    Anatomical terms of location in a fish
  • Anatomical terms of location in a horse
    Anatomical terms of location in a horse

Asymmetrical and spherical organisms

heliozoan
).

In organisms with a changeable shape, such as

spherically symmetrical
organisms, there is nothing to distinguish one line through the centre of the organism from any other. An indefinite number of triads of mutually perpendicular axes could be defined, but any such choice of axes would be useless, as nothing would distinguish a chosen triad from any others. In such organisms, only terms such as superficial and deep, or sometimes proximal and distal, are usefully descriptive.

Four individuals of Phaeodactylum tricornutum, a diatom with a fixed elongated shape

Elongated organisms

In organisms that maintain a constant shape and have one dimension longer than the other, at least two directional terms can be used. The long or longitudinal axis is defined by points at the opposite ends of the organism. Similarly, a perpendicular transverse axis can be defined by points on opposite sides of the organism. There is typically no basis for the definition of a third axis. Usually such organisms are

protists, and are nearly always viewed on microscope slides, where they appear essentially two-dimensional. In some cases a third axis can be defined, particularly where a non-terminal cytostome or other unique structure is present.[44]

Some elongated

sessile (normally attached to a surface).[63]

Euplectella aspergillum sponges (Venus flower baskets)
, showing the apical–basal axes

Organisms that are attached to a

Latin
apex 'peak/tip').

Radially symmetrical organisms

symmetry. Echinoderm larvae are not included, since they are bilaterally symmetrical.[42][44]
Radially symmetrical organisms always have one distinctive axis.

Latin ab- 'away from').[65]

Unlike vertebrates, cnidarians have only a single distinctive axis. "Lateral", "dorsal", and "ventral" have no meaning in such organisms, and all can be replaced by the generic term peripheral (from

Ancient Greek περιφέρεια 'circumference'). Medial can be used, but in the case of radiates indicates the central point, rather than a central axis as in vertebrates. Thus, there are multiple possible radial axes and medio-peripheral (half-) axes. However, some biradially symmetrical comb jellies do have distinct "tentacular" and "pharyngeal" axes[66][67] and are thus anatomically equivalent to bilaterally symmetrical
animals.

Spiders

Special terms are used for

prosoma, and their sizes, shapes and locations are characteristic of various spider families and other taxa.[69] Usually, the eyes are arranged in two roughly parallel, horizontal and symmetrical rows of eyes.[69] Eyes are labelled according to their position as anterior and posterior lateral eyes (ALE) and (PLE); and anterior and posterior median eyes (AME) and (PME).[69]

  • Aspects of spider anatomy. This aspect shows the mainly prolateral surface of the anterior femora, plus the typical horizontal eye pattern of the Sparassidae.
    Aspects of spider anatomy. This aspect shows the mainly prolateral surface of the anterior femora, plus the typical horizontal eye pattern of the
    Sparassidae
    .
  • Typical arrangement of eyes in the Lycosidae, with PME being the largest
    Typical arrangement of eyes in the
    Lycosidae
    , with PME being the largest
  • In the Salticidae the AME are the largest.
    In the
    Salticidae
    the AME are the largest.

See also

References

Citations

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  3. ^ a b c d Kardong's 2019, p. 16.
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