Ancient Corinth

Coordinates: 37°54′19″N 22°52′49″E / 37.9053455°N 22.8801924°E / 37.9053455; 22.8801924
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the ancient city of Corinth. For the modern city, see Corinth.

37°54′19″N 22°52′49″E / 37.9053455°N 22.8801924°E / 37.9053455; 22.8801924

Corinth
Κόρινθος
Ϙόρινθος
900 BC–146 BC
Silver tridrachm from Corinth, c. 345–307 BC of Corinth
Silver tridrachm from Corinth, c. 345–307 BC
Classical Antiquity
• Founding
900 BC
• Cypselus
657–627 BC
146 BC
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Greek Dark Ages
Roman Republic

Corinth (

Athens and Sparta. The modern city of Corinth is located approximately 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) northeast of the ancient ruins. Since 1896, systematic archaeological investigations of the Corinth Excavations by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens
have revealed large parts of the ancient city, and recent excavations conducted by the Greek Ministry of Culture have brought to light important new facets of antiquity.

For Christians, Corinth is well known from the two letters of Saint Paul in the New Testament, First and Second Corinthians. Corinth is also mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles as part of Paul the Apostle's missionary travels. In addition, the second book of Pausanias' Description of Greece is devoted to Corinth.

Ancient Corinth was one of the largest and most important cities of Greece, with a population of 90,000 in 400 BC.[1] The Romans demolished Corinth in 146 BC, built a new city in its place in 44 BC, and later made it the provincial capital of Greece.

History

Prehistory and founding myths

Early Helladic II phase and only sparse ceramic remains in the EHIII and MH phases; thus, it appears that the area was very sparsely inhabited in the period immediately before the Mycenaean period. There was a settlement on the coast near Lechaion which traded across the Corinthian Gulf; the site of Corinth itself was likely not heavily occupied again until around 900 BC, when it is believed that the Dorians settled there.[4]

According to Corinthian myth as reported by

Titan Oceanus
, thus the ancient name of the city (also Ephyra).

It seems likely that Corinth was also the site of a Bronze Age Mycenaean palace-city, like Mycenae, Tiryns, or Pylos. According to myth, Sisyphus was the founder of a race of ancient kings at Corinth. It was also in Corinth that Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, abandoned Medea.[6] During the Trojan War, as portrayed in the Iliad, the Corinthians participated under the leadership of Agamemnon.

In a Corinthian myth recounted to

Briareus, one of the Hecatonchires, was the arbitrator in a dispute between Poseidon and Helios, between the sea and the sun. His verdict was that the Isthmus of Corinth belonged to Poseidon and the acropolis of Corinth (Acrocorinth) belonged to Helios. Helios, the sun god, received the area closest to the sky, while Poseidon, the sea god, got the isthmus by the sea.[8]

The Upper Peirene spring is located within the walls of the acropolis. "The spring, which is behind the temple, they say was the gift of Asopus to Sisyphus. The latter knew, so runs the legend, that Zeus had ravished Aegina, the daughter of Asopus, but refused to give information to the seeker before he had a spring given him on the Acrocorinthus." (Pausanias, 2.5.1).[9] According to legend, the winged horse Pegasus drank at the spring,[10] and was captured and tamed by the Corinthian hero Bellerophon.

Corinth under the Bacchiadae

Main article: Bacchiadae
View of Ancient Corinth

Corinth had been a backwater in Greece in the 8th century BC.

prytanis (who held the kingly position[13] for his brief term),[14] probably a council (though none is specifically documented in the scant literary materials), and a polemarchos
to head the army.

During Bacchiad rule from 747 to 650 BC, Corinth became a unified state. Large scale public buildings and monuments were constructed at this time. In 733 BC, Corinth established colonies at

Corcyra and Syracuse. By 730 BC, Corinth emerged as a highly advanced Greek city with at least 5,000 people.[15]

Aristotle tells the story of Philolaus of Corinth, a Bacchiad who was a lawgiver at Thebes. He became the lover of Diocles, the winner of the Olympic games. They both lived for the rest of their lives in Thebes. Their tombs were built near one another and Philolaus' tomb points toward the Corinthian country, while Diocles' faces away.[16]

In 657 BC, polemarch Cypselus obtained an oracle from Delphi which he interpreted to mean that he should rule the city.[17] He seized power and exiled the Bacchiadae.[18]

Corinth under the tyrants

Main article: Cypselus

Cypselus or Kypselos (Greek: Κύψελος) was the first tyrant of Corinth in the 7th century BC. From 658–628 BC, he removed the Bacchiad aristocracy from power and ruled for three decades. He built temples to Apollo and Poseidon in 650 BC.

Apollo Temple has been built in Doric style on the ruins of earlier temple, being a good example of peripteral temple, supported by 38 columns, 7 of which are still in place.
Archeological site located close to Temple of Apollo.
Archeological site of Ancient Theater first built in Corinth in 5th c. BC. The Theater could seat around 15,000 spectators.

Cypselus was the son of

Eëtion and a disfigured woman named Labda. He was a member of the Bacchiad kin and usurped the power in archaic matriarchal right of his mother. According to Herodotus, the Bacchiadae heard two prophecies from the Delphic oracle that the son of Eëtion
would overthrow their dynasty, and they planned to kill the baby once he was born. However, the newborn smiled at each of the men sent to kill him, and none of them could bear to strike the blow.

Labda then hid the baby in a chest,

Perseus.) The ivory chest of Cypselus was richly worked and adorned with gold. It was a votive offering at Olympia, where Pausanias gave it a minute description in his 2nd century AD travel guide.[20]

Cypselus grew up and fulfilled the prophecy. Corinth had been involved in wars with

Corcyra, and the Corinthians were unhappy with their rulers. Cypselus was polemarch at the time (around 657 BC), the archon in charge of the military, and he used his influence with the soldiers to expel the king. He also expelled his other enemies, but allowed them to set up colonies
in northwestern Greece.

He also increased trade with the colonies in Italy and Sicily. He was a popular ruler and, unlike many later tyrants, he did not need a bodyguard and died a natural death. Aristotle reports that "Cypselus of Corinth had made a vow that if he became master of the city, he would offer to Zeus the entire property of the Corinthians. Accordingly, he commanded them to make a return of their possessions."[21]

The city sent forth colonists to found new settlements in the 7th century BC, under the rule of Cypselus (r. 657–627 BC) and his son

Psammetichus I of the 26th Dynasty
.

Temple of Apollo, Ancient Corinth.
Periander (Περίανδρος) (r. 627–587 BC).

He ruled for thirty years and was succeeded as tyrant by his son Periander in 627 BC.[22] The treasury that Cypselus built at Delphi was apparently still standing in the time of Herodotus, and the chest of Cypselus was seen by Pausanias at Olympia in the 2nd century AD. Periander brought Corcyra to order in 600 BC.

Seven Wise Men of Greece.[23] During his reign, the first Corinthian coins were struck. He was the first to attempt to cut across the Isthmus to create a seaway between the Corinthian and the Saronic Gulfs. He abandoned the venture due to the extreme technical difficulties that he met, but he created the Diolkos instead (a stone-built overland ramp). The era of the Cypselids was Corinth's golden age, and ended with Periander's nephew Psammetichus (Corinthian tyrant) [de
], named after the hellenophile Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus I (see above).

Periander killed his wife Melissa. His son Lycophron found out and shunned him, and Periander exiled the son to

Corcyra.[24] Periander later wanted Lycophron to replace him as ruler of Corinth, and convinced him to come home to Corinth on the condition that Periander go to Corcyra. The Corcyreans heard about this and killed Lycophron to keep away Periander.[25][26]

Archaic Corinth after the tyrants

581 BC: Periander's nephew and successor was assassinated, ending the tyranny.

581 BC: the Isthmian Games were established by leading families.

570 BC: the inhabitants started to use silver coins called 'colts' or 'foals'.

550 BC: Construction of the Temple of Apollo at Corinth (early third quarter of the 6th century BC).[27]

550 BC: Corinth allied with Sparta.

525 BC: Corinth formed a conciliatory alliance with Sparta against Argos.

519 BC: Corinth mediated between Athens and

Thebes
.

Around 500 BC: Athenians and Corinthians entreated Spartans not to harm Athens by restoring the tyrant.[28]

Just before the classical period, according to

Corcyra.[29] The Corinthians were also known for their wealth due to their strategic location on the isthmus, through which all land traffic had to pass en route to the Peloponnese, including messengers and traders.[30]

Classical Corinth

Corinthian stater. Obverse: Pegasus with Koppa () (or Qoppa) beneath. Reverse: Athena wearing Corinthian helmet. Koppa symbolised the archaic spelling of the city name (Ϙόρινθος).
Statues in the Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth.
Corinthian order columns in ancient Corinth.

In

Thebes in wealth, based on the Isthmian traffic and trade. Until the mid-6th century, Corinth was a major exporter of black-figure pottery
to city-states around the Greek world, later losing their market to Athenian artisans.

In

Lais, the most famous hetaira, was said to charge tremendous fees for her extraordinary favours. Referring to the city's exorbitant luxuries, Horace is quoted as saying: "non licet omnibus adire Corinthum" ("Not everyone is able to go to Corinth").[31]

Corinth was also the host of the Isthmian Games. During this era, Corinthians developed the Corinthian order, the third main style of classical architecture after the Doric and the Ionic. The Corinthian order was the most complicated of the three, showing the city's wealth and the luxurious lifestyle, while the Doric order evoked the rigorous simplicity of the Spartans, and the Ionic was a harmonious balance between these two following the cosmopolitan philosophy of Ionians like the Athenians.

The city had two main ports: to the west on the Corinthian Gulf lay Lechaion, which connected the city to its western colonies (Greek: apoikiai) and Magna Graecia, while to the east on the Saronic Gulf the port of Kenchreai served the ships coming from Athens, Ionia, Cyprus and the Levant. Both ports had docks for the city's large navy.

Street in ancient Corinth.

In 491 BC, Corinth mediated between Syracuse and Gela in Sicily.

During the years 481–480 BC, the Conference at the Isthmus of Corinth (following conferences at Sparta) established the Hellenic League, which allied under the Spartans to fight the

hoplites with their characteristic Corinthian helmets[citation needed]) in the following Battle of Plataea. The Greeks obtained the surrender of Theban collaborators with the Persians. Pausanias took them to Corinth where they were put to death.[33]

Following the Battle of Thermopylae and the subsequent Battle of Artemisium, which resulted in the captures of Euboea, Boeotia, and Attica,[34] the Greco-Persian Wars were at a point where now most of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth had been overrun.[35]

Corinthian order.

Herodotus, who was believed to dislike the Corinthians, mentions that they were considered the second best fighters after the Athenians.[36]

In 458 BC, Corinth was defeated by Athens at Megara.

Peloponnesian War

In 435 BC, Corinth and its colony

Epidamnus.[37] In 433 BC, Athens allied with Corcyra against Corinth.[38] The Corinthian war against the Corcyrans was the largest naval battle between Greek city states until that time.[39] In 431 BC, one of the factors leading to the Peloponnesian War was the dispute between Corinth and Athens over Corcyra, which possibly stemmed from the traditional trade rivalry between the two cities or, as Thucydides relates - the dispute over the colony of Epidamnus.[40]

The Syracusans sent envoys to Corinth and Sparta to seek allies against Athenian invasion.[41] The Corinthians "voted at once to aid [the Syracusans] heart and soul".[42] The Corinthians also sent a group to Lacedaemon to rouse Spartan assistance. After a convincing speech from the Athenian renegade Alcibiades, the Spartans agreed to send troops to aid the Sicilians.[42]

In 404 BC, Sparta refused to destroy Athens, angering the Corinthians. Corinth joined

Argos, Boeotia, and Athens against Sparta in the Corinthian War.[citation needed][clarification needed
]

Demosthenes later used this history in a plea for magnanimous statecraft, noting that the Athenians of yesteryear had had good reason to hate the Corinthians and Thebans for their conduct during the Peloponnesian War,[43] yet they bore no malice whatever.[44]

Corinthian War

In 395 BC, after the end of the Peloponnesian War, Corinth and Thebes, dissatisfied with the hegemony of their Spartan allies, moved to support Athens against Sparta in the Corinthian War.[45][46]

As an example of facing danger with knowledge, Aristotle used the example of the Argives who were forced to confront the Spartans in the battle at the Long Walls of Corinth in 392 BC.[47]

379–323 BC

In 379 BC, Corinth, switching back to the Peloponnesian League, joined Sparta in an attempt to defeat Thebes and eventually take over Athens.[citation needed][clarification needed]

In 366 BC, the

Athenian Assembly ordered Chares to occupy the Athenian ally and install a democratic government. This failed when Corinth, Phlius and Epidaurus allied with Boeotia
.

Demosthenes recounts how Athens had fought the Spartans in a great battle near Corinth. The city decided not to harbor the defeated Athenian troops, but instead sent heralds to the Spartans. But the Corinthian heralds opened their gates to the defeated Athenians and saved them. Demosthenes notes that they “chose along with you, who had been engaged in battle, to suffer whatever might betide, rather than without you to enjoy a safety that involved no danger.”[48]

These conflicts further weakened the city-states of the Peloponnese and set the stage for the conquests of Philip II of Macedon.

Demosthenes warned that Philip's military force exceeded that of Athens and thus they must develop a tactical advantage. He noted the importance of a citizen army as opposed to a mercenary force, citing the mercenaries of Corinth who fought alongside citizens and defeated the Spartans.[49]

In 338 BC, after having defeated Athens and its allies,

hegemon
of the League.

In the spring of 337 BC, the Second congress of Corinth established the Common Peace.

Hellenistic period

By 332 BC, Alexander the Great was in control of Greece, as hegemon.

During the

Hellenistic period, Corinth, like many other Greece cities, never quite had autonomy. Under the successors of Alexander the Great, Greece was contested ground, and Corinth was occasionally the battleground for contests between the Antigonids, based in Macedonia, and other Hellenistic powers. In 308 BC, the city was captured from the Antigonids by Ptolemy I, who claimed to come as a liberator of Greece from the Antigonids. However, the city was recaptured by Demetrius in 304 BC.[50]

Corinth remained under Antigonid control for half a century. After 280 BC, it was ruled by the faithful governor Craterus; but, in 253/2 BC, his son Alexander of Corinth, moved by Ptolemaic subsidies, resolved to challenge the Macedonian supremacy and seek independence as a tyrant. He was probably poisoned in 247 BC; after his death, the Macedonian king Antigonus II Gonatas retook the city in the winter of 245/44 BC.

The Macedonian rule was short-lived. In 243 BC, Aratus of Sicyon, using a surprise attack, captured the fortress of Acrocorinth and convinced the citizenship to join the Achaean League.

Thanks to an alliance agreement with Aratus, the Macedonians recovered Corinth once again in 224 BC; but, after the Roman intervention in 197 BC, the city was permanently brought into the Achaean League. Under the leadership of Philopoemen, the Achaeans went on to take control of the entire Peloponnesus and made Corinth the capital of their confederation.[51]

Classical Roman era

Further information:
Roman Greece
Scene of the Battle of Corinth (146 BC): last day before the Roman legions looted and burned the Greek city of Corinth. The last day on Corinth, Tony Robert-Fleury, 1870.
Ancient Roman statue in the Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth

In 146 BC, Rome declared

Lucius Mummius besieged and captured Corinth. When he entered the city, Mummius killed all the men and sold the women and children into slavery before burning the city, for which he was given the cognomen Achaicus as the conqueror of the Achaean League.[52] There is archeological evidence of some minimal habitation in the years afterwards, but Corinth remained largely deserted until Julius Caesar refounded the city as Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis (‘colony of Corinth in honour of Julius’) in 44 BC, shortly before his assassination. At this time, an amphitheatre was built. (37°54′35″N 22°53′31″E / 37.909824°N 22.892078°E / 37.909824; 22.892078 (Corinth (Corinth))
)

Under the Romans, Corinth was rebuilt as a major city in Southern Greece or Achaia. It had a large[53] mixed population of Romans, Greeks, and Jews. The city was an important locus for activities of The Roman Imperial Cult, and both Temple E[54] and the Julian Basilica[55] have been suggested as locations of imperial cult activity.

Biblical Corinth

See also:
Early centers of Christianity § Greece
Pirene fountain

Corinth is mentioned many times in the

Apostolic See
.

The apostle Paul first visited the city in AD 49 or 50, when

Seneca, was proconsul of Achaia.[56] Paul resided here for eighteen months (see Acts 18:11). Here he first became acquainted with Priscilla and Aquila, with whom he later traveled. They worked here together as tentmakers (from which is derived the modern Christian concept of tentmaking), and regularly attended the synagogue
. In AD 51/52, Gallio presided over the
Berea (Acts 18:5). Acts 18:6 suggests that Jewish refusal to accept his preaching here led Paul to resolve no longer to speak in the synagogues where he travelled: "From now on I will go to the Gentiles".[57] However, on his arrival in Ephesus (Acts 18:19
), the narrative records that Paul went to the synagogue to preach.

Paul wrote at least two epistles to the Christian church, the First Epistle to the Corinthians (written from Ephesus) and the Second Epistle to the Corinthians (written from Macedonia). The first Epistle occasionally reflects the conflict between the thriving Christian church and the surrounding community.

Some scholars believe that Paul visited Corinth for an intermediate "painful visit" (see 2 Corinthians 2:1) between the first and second epistles. After writing the second epistle, he stayed in Corinth for about three months[58] in the late winter, and there wrote his Epistle to the Romans.[59]

Based on clues within the Corinthian epistles themselves, some scholars have concluded that Paul wrote possibly as many as four

Christian canon (First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians); the other two letters are lost. (The lost letters would probably represent the very first letter that Paul wrote to the Corinthians and the third one, and so the First and Second Letters of the canon would be the second and the fourth if four were written.) Many scholars think that the third one (known as the "letter of the tears"; see 2 Cor 2:4) is included inside the canonical Second Epistle to the Corinthians (it would be chapters 10–13). This letter is not to be confused with the so-called "Third Epistle to the Corinthians
", which is a pseudepigraphical letter written many years after the death of Paul.

There are speculations from Bruce Winter that the Jewish access to their own food in Corinth was disallowed after Paul's departure. By this theory, Paul had instructed Christian Gentiles to maintain Jewish access to food according to their dietary laws. This speculation is contested by Rudolph who argues that there is no evidence to support this theory. He instead argues that Paul had desired the Gentile Christians to remain assimilated within their Gentile communities and not adopt Jewish dietary procedures.[61]

Medieval Roman (Byzantine) era

Further information: Byzantine Greece and Peloponnese (theme)
The walled gates of Acrocorinth

The city was largely destroyed in the earthquakes of AD 365 and AD 375, followed by

Lechaion.[62]

During the reign of

Emperor Justinian I (527–565), a large stone wall was erected from the Saronic to the Corinthian gulfs, protecting the city and the Peloponnese peninsula from the barbarian invasions from the north. The stone wall was about six miles (10 km) long and was named Hexamilion
("six-miles").

Corinth declined from the 6th century on, and may even have fallen to barbarian invaders in the early 7th century. The main settlement moved from the lower city to the Acrocorinth. Despite its becoming the capital of the theme of Hellas and, after c. 800, of the theme of the Peloponnese, it was not until the 9th century that the city began to recover, reaching its apogee in the 11th and 12th centuries, when it was the site of a flourishing silk industry.[62]

In November 856, an earthquake in Corinth killed an estimated 45,000.[63]

The wealth of the city attracted the attention of the Italo-Normans under Roger II of Sicily, who plundered it in 1147, carrying off many captives, most notably silk weavers. The city never fully recovered from the Norman sack.[62]

Principality of Achaea

Following the sack of

Elis. Corinth was the last significant town of Achaea on its northern borders with another crusader state, the Duchy of Athens. The Ottomans captured the city in 1395. The Byzantines of the Despotate of the Morea recaptured it in 1403, and the Despot Theodore II Palaiologos, restored the Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth
in 1415.

Ottoman rule

In 1458, five years after the final

Mora Eyalet
in 1715–1731 and then again a sanjak capital until 1821.

Independence

Carl Anton Joseph Rottmann
, 1847

During the Greek War of Independence, 1821–1830 the city was contested by the Ottoman forces. At that time, the Christian Albanian tribes living to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth attacked the acropolis of the city. They were around 2000 musketeers against the Ottoman troops.[64] The city was officially liberated in 1832 after the Treaty of London. In 1833, the site was considered among the candidates for the new capital city of the recently founded Kingdom of Greece, due to its historical significance and strategic position. Nafplio was chosen initially, then Athens.

Modern Corinth

Main article: Corinth

In 1858, the village surrounding the ruins of Ancient Corinth was destroyed by an earthquake, leading to the establishment of New Corinth 3 km (1.9 mi) NE of the ancient city.

Ancient city and its environs

Acrocorinth, the acropolis

Main article: Acrocorinth

Acrocorinthis, the

fortress was used as the last line of defense in southern Greece because it commanded the isthmus of Corinth, repelling foes from entry into the Peloponnesian peninsula. Three circuit walls formed the man-made defense of the hill. The highest peak on the site was home to a temple to Aphrodite which was Christianized as a church, and then became a mosque.[65]
The American School began excavations on it in 1929. Currently, Acrocorinth is one of the most important medieval castle sites of Greece.

Two ports: Lechaeum and Cenchreae

Corinth had two harbours:

long walls of about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) length, and was the main trading station for Italy and Sicily, where there were many Corinthian colonies, while Cenchreae served the commerce with the Eastern Mediterranean. Ships could be transported between the two harbours by means of the diolkos constructed by the tyrant Periander
.

Important monuments

Notable people

Ancient Greece

  • Achaicus (1st century AD), Christian
  • Adrian of Corinth
    (3rd century AD), Christian saint and martyr
  • Archias (8th century BC), founder of Syracuse
  • Desmon (8th century BC), athlete
  • Dinarchus (4th century BC), orator and logographer
  • Diocles (8th century BC), athlete
  • Diogenes of Sinope, 4th century BC, one of the world's best known cynics
  • Eumelus (8th century BC), poet
  • Euphranor (4th century BC), sculptor and painter
  • Periander (7th century BC), listed as one of the Seven Sages of Greece
  • Quadratus (4th century AD), Christian saint and martyr
  • Timoleon (4th century BC), statesman and general
  • Xeniades (5th century BC), philosopher
  • Xenophon (5th century BC), athlete

Medieval

In literature

See also

References

  1. ISBN 978-0415217552
    .
  2. JSTOR 4390716
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  3. S2CID 191377774
    .
  4. S2CID 162279819
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  5. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.1.1
  6. ^ Euripides, Medea
  7. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece ii. 1.6 and 4.7.
  8. ^ Grummond and Ridgway, p. 69, "Helios' higher position would correspond to the sun's location in the sky versus Poseidon's lower venue in the sea, opposite Demeter on land."
  9. ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.1–14 – Theoi Classical Texts Library". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  10. ^ Anthony, J. Collecting Ancient Greek Coins Part Seven: Corinth Coins and Antiquities magazine August 1999 p.51
  11. ^ Édouard Will, Korinthiaka: recherches sur l'histoire et la civilisation de Corinth des origines aux guerres médiques (Paris: Boccard) 1955.
  12. ^ Telestes was murdered by two Bacchiads named Arieus and Perantas. (Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I p. 450). It has been debated what extent this early history is a genealogical myth.
  13. rex sacrorum
    .
  14. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 7.9.6; Pausanias 2.4.4.
  15. ISBN 978-0817352462
    .
  16. ^ Politics, 1274a
  17. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 5.92 E
  18. ^ His mother had been of the Bacchiadae, but she was lame and married outside the clan.
  19. ^ An etiological myth-element to account for the name Cypselus (cypsele, "chest")
  20. ^ Pausanias, 5.18.7.
  21. ^ Economics, Book 2. 1346a, Aristotle
  22. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 5.92F
  23. ^ Diogenes Laertius, i. 13.
  24. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 3.52
  25. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 3.53
  26. ^ Herodotus relates that Arion the harpist was sailing home on a Corinthian vessel when the crew decided to rob and kill him. He begged them to let him sing a last song before killing him. He threw himself overboard and escaped to Taernarus on the back of a dolphin. He presented himself to Periander, who then condemned the sailors (Herodotus Histories Book 1.24).
  27. ^ Bookidis N., "Corinthian Terracotta Sculpture and the Temple of Apollo," Hesperia 69, 4, 2000, p. 386
  28. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 5.93
  29. ^ Thucydides 1:13
  30. ^ Thucydides, Book 1:13
  31. ISBN 0415969093
    .
  32. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 7:202
  33. ^ Histories, Book 9:88, Herodotus
  34. ISBN 978-0856685910
    .
  35. ISBN 978-1848846302
    .
  36. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 9:105
  37. ^ The Peloponnesian War, Thucydides, Book 1.29
  38. ^ The Peloponnesian War, Thucydides, Book 1.45
  39. ^ Thucycdides, Book 1, "The dispute over Corcyra", 50
  40. ^ Thucydides, Book 1.24-1.29
  41. ^ Thucydides, Book 6.73
  42. ^ a b Thucydides, Book 6.88
  43. ^ especially the latter part, the Decelan War
  44. ^ On The Crown Book 18.96
  45. ^ On the Peace, Isocrates, Speech 68, section 68
  46. Hellenica, Books 3–7, Xenophon
  47. ^ Nicomachean Ethics, Book 3.8
  48. ^ Demosthenes Against Leptines 20.52–20.53
  49. ^ Philippic I, Book 4.24
  50. ^ Shipley, G. 2000. The Greek World After Alexander 323–30 BC. London: Routledge (pp. 121–122).
  51. ^ Shipley, G. 2000. The Greek World After Alexander 323–30 BC. London: Routledge (pp. 137–138).
  52. ^ Shipley, G. 2000. The Greek World After Alexander 323–30 BC. London: Routledge (pp. 384–385).
  53. ^ Josiah Russell, in "Late Ancient and Medieval Population", estimates 50,000 people in Roman Corinth.
  54. S2CID 191854233
    .
  55. ISBN 978-8460679493
    .
  56. ^ Acts 18:12
  57. ^ Paul and Barnabas had said the same thing to the Jews of Antioch in Acts 13:46
  58. ^ Acts 20:3
  59. ^ Bryant, T. A. (1982). Today's Dictionary of the Bible. Bethany House Publishers, NY.
  60. ^ Orr, William F. and James Arthur Walther (1976). 1 Corinthians: A New Translation (Anchor Bible). Doubleday, p. 120.
  61. ISBN 978-1498296168
    .
  62. ^
    ISBN 978-0195046526
    .
  63. ^ Gunn, Angus Macleod (2007). Encyclopedia of Disasters: Environmental Catastrophes and Human Tragedies. p. 32.
  64. ^ Isabella, Maurizio (2023). Southern Europe in the Age of Revolutions. Princeton University Press. p. 129.
  65. ^ "Acrocorinth Mosque (Τζαμιού του Ακροκόρινθου)". Madain Project. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 10 September 2023.

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Corinth.
American Cyclopædia article Corinth
.
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Corinth.
Library resources about
Ancient Corinth
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