Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrifices
Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrifice is a type of human sacrifice in which pharaohs and occasionally other high court nobility would have servants killed after the pharaohs' deaths to continue to serve them in the afterlife. In Egypt, retainer sacrifice only existed during the First Dynasty, from about 3100 BC to 2900 BC, slowly dwindling, and eventually dying out.
Historical context
Egypt's beliefs about the afterlife
Ancient Egyptians, like many cultures, believed in an afterlife, and much of what remains of their civilization reflects this because only the temples, tombs, and other religious structures survive well. One belief that was at the center of Egyptian beliefs about life after death was the belief in the
Egyptians looked at the afterlife as a continuation of this life and believed that they would be able to enjoy many of the same activities. They also held the belief that they would be able to maintain the same social hierarchy.[2] Egyptians, especially upper-class Egyptians, were very preoccupied with making sure their life to come would be as comfortable, if not more comfortable, than their life on earth.[2] Excavated tombs were found to contain food, painted murals, statues, jewelry, and various other items.
Power of the Pharaoh
Egyptian pharaohs were revered as
Evidence for retainer sacrifices
As is common with most Egyptian
There is some disputation as to the authenticity of retainer sacrifices, due to less than substantial evidence; however, most Egyptologists believe that retainer sacrifice did happen. Normally, ancient Egyptians in shared gravesites were buried at different times. To the contrary, in those graves believed to contain retainer sacrifices, the individuals were buried simultaneously, suggesting these retainers were sacrificed. The archeologists claim that since the grave roofing is continuous, the burials had to have been made at the same time.[4]
Reasons for retainer sacrifices
Pharaohs' and nobles' perspective
The purpose of retainer sacrifices was "to enable the wealthy nobles [and pharaohs] to enjoy the same kind of life-style after death as [they] had during [their] lifetime".[2] They also wanted to maintain the same social status they had enjoyed on earth; a social hierarchy that was based upon being served by others.[2] Pharaohs used retainer sacrifices to reinforce the power of the position of the pharaoh, by showing the control they had over their subjects.[3] Pharaohs also used retainer sacrifices to help communicate the idea that the state was literally worth dying for.[3]
Retainers' perspective
Pharaohs' subjects viewed the pharaoh as a living god, the god
First dynasty retainer sacrifices in general
Graves around royal tombs often contained harem members, minor palace function members,
Specific kings' retainer sacrifices from the first dynasty
King Aha
King Djer
King Djer, Aha's son and successor, had 318 retainer sacrifices buried in his tomb, and 269 retainer sacrifices buried in enclosures surrounding his tomb.[3] Dr. O'Connor believes that the more than 200 graves found in King Djer's funerary complex contain retainer sacrifices, as well.[4] According to Ancient Egypt: A Social History, King Djer was buried with over 580 retainers. It is highly unlikely that all these retainers died of natural causes at the same time, suggesting that these retainers were sacrificed upon the death of King Djer.[6] According to the National Geographic's article, 569 retainers were sacrificed for King Djer.[7]
King Djet
King Djet had 174 sacrificed retainers buried around his tomb at Abydos and sixty-two retainers buried around his tomb at Saqqara.[8]
King Den
After the death of
King Qaa
The funerary complex of
Demographics of sacrificed retainers
S.O.Y. Keita and A.J. Boyce, authors of Variation in Porotic Hyperostosis in the Royal Cemetery Complex at Abydos, Upper Egypt: A Social Interpretation, examined forty-four skulls from the funerary complex of King Djer and discovered that those buried outside the tomb enjoyed better health than those in the actual tomb. This can be interpreted in two ways. First, those buried outside the tomb were believed to have enjoyed better health because they were wealthier, and consequently, had better nutritional standards. The second is that those buried inside the royal tomb could afford to take care of their illness-ridden children.[
Of the twelve sacrificed and buried in the three surrounding tombs of King Aha's funerary complex, all identifiable retainers "were all male and around twenty years of age".[3] Morris suggests that these retainers, due to their gender, youth, and how they were buried, "regimented alignment in straight rows", were possibly a military guard, buried with the king to protect and serve him in the afterlife.[3] Dr. Laurel Bestock, one of the archeologists on the New York University, Yale, and University of Pennsylvania team, recalled that the people buried in King Aha's complex were not only lowly servants, but included rich nobles as well.[4]
Most of the retainer sacrifices in the surrounding tombs of the funerary complex of King Djer at Abydos were female and probably consisted of "the king's subsidiary wives, concubines, relatives, or maidservants.[3] The retainers sacrificed during King Den's reign were "not a homogenous group, but ... included a number of individuals of varying duties and status".[3]
Possible methods of sacrifice
Nancy Lovell, a
Reasons for dwindling of retainer sacrifices
Retainer sacrifice was abandoned almost immediately after the end of the First Dynasty. One theory posits that retainers of the pharaohs after the First Dynasty were not convinced of the immediate need to die in order to serve a leader in the next life, and instead believed that they could serve the pharaoh after they died, when their time came.
Another probable reason for the decline, and eventual end, of retainer sacrifices is the creation of shabti-figures. Shabti-figures were mummy-shaped figurines, meant to replace retainer sacrifices; "... the responsibility for carrying out tasks on behalf of the deceased was transferred to a special kind of funerary statuette, known as a shabti-figure".[2] These shabti-figures were believed to carry out a wide variety of tasks, including everything from cultivating fields, to irrigating canals, to serving the deceased. Engraved on the shabti-figures was a "magical" text that was meant to ensure they would carry out their assigned tasks.[2]
See also
- Funeral of a Norse chieftain (especially Human sacrifice subsection)
- Wooden tomb model
References
- ^ a b Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History: Ancient Art. 3rd. 1. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2009. 52-55. Print.
- ^ a b c d e f g Spencer, A.J. Death In Ancient Egypt. 1st. Great Britain: Penguin Books Ltd, 1982. 68;139. Print.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Morris, Ellen F. "Sacrifice for the State: First Dynasty Royal Funerals and the Rites at Macramallah's Rectangle." 15-37. Print.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Wilford, John Noble (16 March 2004). "With escorts to the afterlife, pharaohs proved their power". The New York Times (Late. Print ed.). p. F3.
- ^ Skinner, Andrew. "Ancient Egyptian Obsession With Eternity." Brigham Young University. Harold B. Lee Library. 22 Oct. 2009.
- ^ a b c Trigger, B.G., B.J. Kemp, D. O'Connor, and A.B. Lloyd. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. 1st. Great Britain: University Press, Cambridge, 1983. 52-56. Print.
- ^ a b c Galvin, John. "Abydos: Life and Death at the Dawn of Egyptian Civilization." National Geographic Apr. 2005: 106-21. Print.
- ^ Grinsell, Leslie V. Barrow, Pyramid and Tomb: Ancient burial customs in Egypt, the Mediterranean and the British Isles. The slaves where not buried, only their souls supposibly "moved on". 1st. Great Britain: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1975. 39. Print.
Sources
- Galvin, John. "Abydos: Life and Death at the Dawn of Egyptian Civilization." National Geographic Apr. 2005: 106–21. Print.
- Garstang, John. Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt. 1st. Great Britain: Kegan Paul Limited, 2002. 16–17. Print.
- Grinsell, Leslie V. Barrow, Pyramid and Tomb: Ancient burial customs in Egypt, the Mediterranean and the British Isles. 1st. Great Britain: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1975. 39. Print.
- Morris, Ellen F. "Sacrifice for the State: First Dynasty Royal Funerals and the Rites at Macramallah's Rectangle." 15–37. Print.
- Skinner, Andrew. "Ancient Egyptian Obsession With Eternity." Brigham Young University. Harold B. Lee Library. 22 Oct. 2009.
- Spencer, A.J. Death In Ancient Egypt. 1st. Great Britain: Penguin Books Ltd, 1982. 68;139. Print.
- Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History: Ancient Art. 3rd. 1. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2009. 52–55. Print.
- Trigger, B.G., B.J. Kemp, D. O'Connor, and A.B. Lloyd. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. 1st. Great Britain: University Press, Cambridge, 1983. 52–56. Print.
- Wilford, John Noble. "With Escorts to the Afterlife, Pharaohs Proved Their Power." New York Times 16 Mar. 2004, Late: F3. Print.