Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Mauryan Empire
period, 3rd century BC.

For the

Indus Plain) place.[1]

Names

The Greeks referred to the ancient Indians as "Indoi" (Greek: Ἰνδοί, lit. 'people of the Indus River').

The Indians referred to the Greeks as "Yonas/Yavanas/Yadavs",[2] or other variants such as Yonaka,[3] in reference to the Ionians.[3] It is suggested that they took the word either from Persians (who called the Greeks Yaunas) or from some Semitic language.[3] The traditional Indian grammarians in their etymological theory about the word Yavanas, believed that the word was derived from the Sankrit root Yu (to mix, to mingle).[3] The earliest written record of the term Yavana is in the

Astadhyayi, work of Pāṇini. There the author, while teaching the use of affix anuk, gives Yavanani as one of the examples.[3]
In addition,
Katyayana explains that when the affix is added in the word Yavana indicates handwriting, meaning that Yavanani, Yavanallipyam indicate Yavana writing/scripts.[3]

Although originally the word Yavana meant Greek, in later centuries it was also applied to Romans, Arabs and westerners in general.[3]

Mythology and legends

Dionysus

Relief of Dionysus, Nagarjunakonda, Southern India, 3rd century CE

Megasthenes wrote about the prehistoric arrival of the God Dionysus in India.

According to Philostratus, Dionysus was called Nysian or Nysean (Νύσιος) by the Indians.[4] According to legend, he founded the city of Nysa in India.[5] When Alexander the Great arrived in Nysa, representatives of the city met him and asked him not to capture the city and the land because the god that had founded the city and named it had named it after his nurse and had also named the mountain near the city, Meron (Μηρόν) (i.e. thigh), because Dionysus grew in the thigh of Zeus.[6][7][8] More about the city is below at the "Cities and places" section.

Apollonius Rhodius in Argonautica wrote about the Nysean, son of Zeus, who had left the tribes of the Indians and came to dwell at Thebes.[9]

In addition, Philostratus mentioned that at

Hydraotes and the continental region beyond, which ends at the river Ganges, declare that Dionysus was the son of the river Indus and that the Dionysus of Thebes was his disciple.[10]

The epic poem

Ancient Greek: Κολλήτης) who was huge, immense, and formidable, and whose ancestor was the founder of the Indian race.[11] In addition, in Book 14 Hera transformed into an Indian in order to talk and persuade the Indian chief to fight Dionysus' army.[12]

Apollodorus in Bibliotheca wrote about Dionysus and the Indians.[13]

Polyaenus wrote that after Dionysus had subdued the Indians, he formed an alliance with them and the Amazons, and took them into his service. He later used them in his campaign against Bactria.[14]

A hymn to Dionysus in Greek Anthology is called Dionysus Indoletes (Ἰνδολέτης), which means slayer/killer of Indians.[15] Other poems in Greek Anthology also mention the campaign of Dionysus against the Indians.[16]

Phylarchus wrote that Dionysus was the first to bring two bulls, named Apis and Osiris, from India to Egypt. But Plutarch found this theory absurd.[17]

Herakles

Mathura Herakles strangling the Nemaean lion, Mathura, India

Megasthenes wrote about the prehistoric arrival of

Megasthenes' Herakles
) in India.

Ancient Greek: Πανδαίη), was the daughter of Heracles whom he fathered in India. He gave her the southern part of India, which is by the sea and she was a queen there.[18]
According to legend the Indian tribe of Pandae, were descended from the daughter of Heracles and for this reason they were the only tribe in India who had the habit of having female sovereigns.[19]

Others

Ganges was personified by the Greeks as a river god. Limnaee was the Naiad-nymph of a lake in India and daughter of the river Ganges. She had a son named Athis.[20]

Hydaspes was personified by the Greeks as a river god (Hydaspes (mythology)). He supported the Indians in their war against the invading armies of the god Dionysus. He was the son of Thaumas and Elektra, and the brother of the Iris. In addition, the king of the Indians, Deriades (Δηριάδης) was the son of Hydaspes and Astris, who was the daughter of the god Helios.[21]

In Greek Anthology, Philodemus wrote that Perseus was in love with the Indian Andromeda.[22][23]

Apollodorus in Bibliotheca wrote that Medus conquered many barbarians and called the whole country under him Media, but when he was marching against the Indians he died.[24]

Memnon, the son of Tithonus and Aurora, arrived with a large army of Indians and Ethiopians, a truly remarkable army that consisted of thousands and thousands of men with various kinds of arms, and surpassed the hopes and prayers even of Priam."[25]

Ancient Greek writers have written about Manticore, a monstrous creature which lived in India.[26][27][28]

Greek writers wrote that there were Cynocephaly (dog-headed) tribes in India.[29][30][31] Aulus Gellius in Attic Nights mentioned that some writers also wrote also about a tribe in "farthest India with bodies that are rough and covered with feathers like birds, who eat no food but live by inhaling the perfume of flowers."[32]

Eratosthenes said that the Macedonians, seeing a cavern in the land of the Parapamisadians and hearing a certain legend which was current among the natives, or themselves forming a conjecture, spread the report that this forsooth was the cave where Prometheus had been bound.[33]

According to the Latin Letter from Alexander the Great to Aristotle a creature called Odontotyrannos attacked Alexander's men at their camp in India.

Pseudo-Callisthenes, Alexander Romance, with other materials and wrote about an affair of Alexander the Great with Kandake, adding that they got married. Malalas wrote that Kandake was an Indian queen and Alexander met her during his Indian campaign.[34][35][36]

Antigonus of Carystus,[37] Aristotle[38] and Ctesias wrote that there were Indian donkeys (ἰνδικὸς ὄνος) which were one-horned,[37] thus being animals similar to Unicorns.

Herodotus, wrote about Gold-digging ants in India which were smaller than dogs but larger than foxes.[39] Aelian wrote that "The Indian ants (μύρμηκες οἱ Ἰνδικοὶ) which guard the gold will not cross the river Campylinus".[40]

The Indian Dragons were a breed of giant serpents which could fight and strangle the elephants of India.[41][42]

At Taprobana (modern Sri Lanka), there were Cetea (sea monsters) with different forms.[43][44]

Ancient Greek sources also mention a breed of gigantic worms in India.[45]

Contact, records and influence between the two civilizations

Coinage and inscriptions

Kanishka coin with Greek lettering "ΒΟΔΔΟ" (i.e. Buddha), Kushan Empire, 2nd century CE

The Kushan Empire used the Greek alphabet, and on their coins, they used Greek legends. They also adopted other elements of the Greek culture of the Hellenistic Kingdoms. Art themes derived from Greek mythology were common initially but later Buddhist imagery dominated.[46]

The

Western Kshatrapas, established the Kshatrapa coinage, derived from Indo-Greek coinage. The obverse of the coins consists of the profile of the ruler with a legend in Greek, while the reverse represents a thunderbolt and an arrow, with Brahmi and Kharoshthi
legends.

The

Greek script to write a language described as Arya. The inscription relates to the rule of the Kushan emperor Kanishka
.

The city of

Indo-Greek coins.[47]

The king Gondophares minted coins with the Greek title of autokrator.[48]

In a Kharoshthi inscription found in the

Swat area of Gandhara, which dates to the 1st century BC, there was a dedication from the Greek meridarch Theodorus
.

Art and literature

Pompeii Yakshii (Lakshmi)
An ivory statuette of a Yakshii (1st century CE), found in the ruins of Pompeii (destroyed in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE).
MaterialIvory
Height24.5 cm (9+1⁄2 in)
Discoveredc. 1930–1938
Pompeii
Present locationSecret Museum, Naples, Italy
Identification149425

In

Creon mentions the gold of India.[49]

Gandhara art
was heavily influenced by the Greek style.

The Art of Mathura is a blend of Indian and Greek art.

The satirist Lucian wrote that Indians get drunk very easily with wine and they get worse than any Greek or Roman would be.[50]

In Greek Anthology, India and Indians are mentioned in many occasions.[51]

The Pompeii Yakshii, an Indian sculpture of a Yakshii was found in the ruins of Roman Pompeii.

At the Nasik Caves, some of the caves were built by Greek descended people.

The murals in the Ajanta Caves are painted in such a way which suggest a Greek influence.[52]

The Indian theater had adopted some elements of the Greek comedy.[53]

The Yavana Ganika (Greek Ganika). A Ganika in India was similar to a Hetaira in the Greek world) was a common sight in India. These girls were also trained in the theatrical arts.[54][55]

Kalidasa mention the Yayanis (Greek maidens) in his work.[56]

Bharhut Yavana is a relief, discovered among the reliefs of the railings around the Bharhut Stupa, representing a Greek warrior.

Some of the iconography and motifs of Gandharan art reveal its influences from the Greek art. The Greek god Triton; the Dionysian motif of youth holding a leather pouch filled with wine; or cupids bearing garlands of flowers. From 2nd-3rd century, now in National Museum of Korea.
Plato of Bactria with the god Helios (left) and sculpture of Surya at Bodh Gaya
(right).

Historians and geographers

Ptolemy's map of the world
Ptolemy's 10th map of Asia, depicting India within the Ganges, 15th century reproduction
Ptolemy's 10th map of Asia, depicting India within the Ganges, 15th century reproduction

Hecataeus of Miletus, wrote a survey of Asia and Africa in his Periígisis (Greek: Περιήγησις: to browse), now lost, which contained some information on India.[57]

Herodotus in his work Histories, includes important remarks on India.[57]

Ctesias in his work Indika (Greek: Ινδικά), records the beliefs and view of the Persians about India.

Ephorus wrote that the Indians inhabit a country in the east near sunrise.[58]

Xenophon in his work Cyropaedia mentioned India and the Indians.[59]

Aristobulus of Cassandreia wrote about the customs and the animals of India.[57]

Cleitarchus, probably did not travel to India, but his account of the country, based on Onesicritus’ and Nearchus’ reports, gained much popularity.[57]

Pseudo-Scymnus wrote in Circuit of the Earth that Indians occupy almost all the land toward the East.[60]

Eratosthenes attempted to calculate the exact size and shape of India, relying on reports written by travelers.[57]

Dionysius Periegetes described how Indians looked like.[61]

Arrian wrote about India in his work Indica (Greek: Ἰνδική).

Quintus Curtius Rufus wrote about the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great in his work Histories of Alexander the Great.

Strabo described India in his work Geographica. He referred to India several times during the course of the book, and he devoted book 15 to an extended description of the country.[57]

Clitophon of Rhodes wrote books about India. Pseudo-Plutarch mention the First Book of Indian Relations.[62]

Stephanus of Byzantium wrote of the geographical, mythological, and religious information of India.[63]

Ammianus Marcellinus in his work History wrote about India.[64]

Jordanes at the Getica wrote about India.[65]

Ancient Greek: Ιαβαδίου or Σαβαδίου), which researchers identify respectively as the Indonesian places of Barus in Northern Sumatra[66] and Java.[67][68]

The

Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta mention many nations and places as far as Goguryeo, including India and Indians.[69]

Astronomy and astrology

Greek

astronomical texts were translated into Sanskrit.[70]
zodiac signs were introduced into India by the Greeks.[71]

The Paulisa Siddhanta is also influenced to have a Greek source.[72]

The Romaka Siddhanta is based on the astronomical learning of the Byzantine Empire.[73][74]

The Garga Samhita states: "The Yavanas (Greeks) are barbarians, yet the science of astronomy originated with them, and for this, they must be revered like gods.".[75][76][77][78][72][79] The Yuga Purana, the last chapter of Garga Samhita, also mentioned the Greeks.[2][80]

Philosophy and religion

Map of Alexander the Great's empire and the route he, Pyrrho, Anaxarchus, and Onesicritus took to India

Pyrrhonism

See also:
Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism

The philosopher

Diogenes Laërtius, Pyrrho developed his philosophy of Pyrrhonism in India when Pyrrho was there during the conquest of Alexander the Great. According to Christopher I. Beckwith's analysis, Pyrrho's philosophy was strikingly similar to the Buddhist three marks of existence,[81]
indicating that Pyrrho's teaching is based on Buddhism.

Because of the high degree of similarity between

Nāgārjuna's philosophy and Pyrrhonism, particularly the surviving works of Sextus Empiricus,[82] Thomas McEvilley suspects Nāgārjuna was influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported to India.[83]

Diogenes Laërtius wrote that

gymnosophists and magi.[84]

Buddhism

Greco-Buddhist cultural syncretism. The arts of the Indian sub-continent were also quite affected by Hellenistic art during and after these interactions. (Hellenistic influence on Indian art). The iconography of Vajrapani is clearly that of the hero Heracles, with varying degrees of hybridization.[85]

Menander I was one of the patrons of Buddhism; he was also the subject of the Milinda Panha. In addition, Menander mentioned at the Shinkot casket. G. R. Sharma claimed that Menander is also mentioned in the Reh Inscription, but other scholars disagree.

Dharmaraksita was a Greek who converted to Buddhism. He was one of the missionaries sent by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka to proselytize Buddhism.

Alexandria of the Caucasus.[86]
In addition, Mahāvaṃsa mention how early Buddhists from Sri Lanka went to Alexandria of the Caucasus to learn Buddhism.[86]

The

Ashoka's Major Rock Edicts by the Indian Emperor Ashoka, were written in the Greek language. In addition, the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription was written in Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka used the word "eusebeia" (piety) as a Greek translation for the central Buddhist and Hindu concept of "dharma" in the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription.[87]

Ptolemy II Philadelphus is also mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka:

Now it is conquest by

Pandyas
, and as far as Tamraparni. Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika)

Buddhist gravestones from

dharma wheel, showing the presence of Buddhists in Hellenistic Egypt.[88]

Buddhist manuscripts in

cursive Greek, dated later than the 2nd century AD, have been found in Afghanistan. Some mention the "Lokesvararaja Buddha" (λωγοασφαροραζοβοδδο).[89]

Peripateticism

Aristotle's knowledge of India came essentially from Scylax and Ctesias. He quoted Scylax to refer to Indian politics and mentions seven Indian animals, by clearly drawing on Ctesias.[57]

The Peripatetic philosopher Clearchus of Soli traveled to the east to study Indian religions.[90]

The Peripatetic philosopher Theophrastus, in his book on the history of plants, wrote an excursus on Indian species.[57] Also, in his work "On Stones," he describes rocks, stones and gems produced in India.[91]

The Peripatetic philosopher

polemicist Eusebius) said an Indian conversed with Socrates in Athens.[92]

And Aristoxenus the musician said that this argument comes from the Indians. For a man of that people met Socrates in Athens and asked him what his philosophy was about; and when he said that he was investigating human life, the Indian laughed at him, saying that no one could understand human affairs if he ignored the divine. Whether this is true, no one can say for sure.[93]

Christian

See also: Buddhism and Christianity

Clement of Alexandria wrote about India, Gymnosophists, Brahmans, Buddha, etc. in the Stromata.[94]

The

theologian Pantaenus
was said to have traveled to India.

The Suda write that during the reign of Constantine the Great, the nearer Indians were baptized.[95]

Sophism

The Greek Sophist Philostratus, in his work Life of Apollonius of Tyana (Greek: Βίος Απολλωνίου του Τυανέως) and the Suda,[96] mentioned that the Greek philosopher Apollonius had traveled to India.

The Sophist Dio Chrysostom mentioned India in his work Discourses and wrote that Homer's poetry is sung in India.[97] He also mentioned that Bactrians and Indians were to be found in his audience in Alexandria (circa 100 CE).[98]

Others

The philosopher Democritus was said to have traveled to India.[99]

The Sibylline Oracles mentioned India.[100]

The Cynic philosopher Onesicritus wrote about the gymnosophists, the people and the landscape of India.[57]

The

Academic Skeptic philosopher Favorinus owned an Indian slave[101] named Autolekythos.[102]

Ptolemy wrote about the Brahmanas (Greek: Βραχμάναι Μάγοι),[61] Narmada River and more.

The Neoplatonic philosopher Ammonius Saccas may have been of Shakyan Indian descent.

Varāhamihira, in a passage where he calls on the people to honour the Brahmans, said: “The Greeks, though impure, must be honoured, since they are trained in sciences, and therein they excelled others. What, then, are we to say of a Brahman, if he combines with his purity the height of science?”[103]

Manichaenism
.

Achmet, son of Seirim wrote a work on the interpretation of dreams in Greek which was called Ὀνειροκριτικά and contains what has been written on the same subject by the Indians, Persians, and Egyptians.[104]

Political and military

During the Second Persian invasion of Greece, the Persian army had Indian troops, both infantry and cavalry.[105][106][107][108]

At the

gymnosophists, including Dandamis and Kalanos.[110]

Alexander let

Porus keep their kingdoms[111] and added Paropamisadae to the kingdom of Oxyartes.[112] In addition, he gave Peithon[112][111] and Philip Indian satrapies. The Indian king Abisares who sent embassies of submission to Alexander was allowed to retain his kingdom with considerable additions.[113][114]

Alexander also conquered the kingdom of the Indian king Phegeus. The inhabitants welcomed Alexander's army and the king met Alexander and gave him many gifts.[115] He also conquered the city of Sagala.

Alexander asked Phegeus and Porus what was after the

Xandrames, before his army mutinied.[116]

After the mutiny of his army, he conducted the Mallian campaign.

And then they conducted the campaign against the

Oritians and Arabitians. After he conquered them, he made Apollophanes the Satrap in the area.[117]

According to ancient writers, the Queen

Massaga
had a son with Alexander the Great. But modern historians dismiss this.

The

pankratiast and Olympic winner Dioxippus accompanied Alexander to India.[118]

After the Battle of Gabiene, Antigonus I Monophthalmus sent the Argyraspides to Sibyrtius at Arachosia.

Greek conquests in India
).

According to Indian sources, Greek troops seem to have assisted

Mauryan Empire.[119]

Later, Seleucus I's army encountered Chandragupta army. Chandragupta and Seleucus finally concluded an alliance. Seleucus gave him his daughter in marriage, ceded the territories of Arachosia, Herat, Kabul and Makran and received 500 war elephants.

Bindusara, the second Mauryan emperor of India, had diplomatic relations with and very friendly feelings towards the Greeks. He even asked Antiochus I Soter to send him a Greek sophist for his court.

Megasthenes had traveled to India and had several interviews with Chandragupta Maurya, known as Sandracottus to the Greeks.[120]

Mauryan court at Pataliputra in India,[121] probably to Emperor Ashoka
:

"But [India] has been treated of by several other Greek writers who resided at the courts of Indian kings, such, for instance, as Megasthenes, and by Dionysius, who was sent thither by Philadelphus expressly for the purpose: all of whom have enlarged upon the power and vast resources of these nations." Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21 [122]

Asoka also appointed some Greeks to high offices of state (Yavanaraja, meaning Greek King or Governor), for example, the Tushaspha. In addition, his edicts mention a Yona (Greek) province on the north-west border of India, most probably the Arachosia.[123]

Polybius wrote about the use of Indian elephants in battles and about the alliance between the Indian king Sophagasenus and Antiochus III the Great.[124]

Diodorus, quoting Iambulus, mentioned that the king of Pataliputra had a "great love for the Greeks".[125][126]

The Greek historian

Bactrian Greeks conquered India. Justin also described Demetrius I as "King of the Indians". Greek and Indian sources indicate the Greeks campaigned as far as Pataliputra until they were forced to retreat following a coup in Bactria
in 170 BC.

The

Heliodorus (Greek: Ἡλιόδωρος), a Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra. The site is located about 5 miles from the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi
.

The Roman Emperor Augustus received envoys from the Saka King. They gave him a letter written in Greek and asked for some diplomatic requests.[127][128][50]

The King Phraotes received a Greek education at the court of his father and spoke Greek fluently.[129]

Cretan mercenaries.[130][131]

Tamil poems described the Greek soldiers who served as mercenaries for Indian kings as "the valiant-eyed Yavanas, whose bodies were strong and of terrible aspect".[132]

Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher said that some of the troops of Mara in the Gandhara sculptures may represent Greek mercenaries.[133]

The Cilappatikaram mentions Yavana soldiers, who, according to scholars, including Professor Dikshitar, is a reference to the Greek mercenaries employed by the Tamil kings.[134]

Patanjali, the commentator of Pāṇini describes two sieges the Greeks made: The siege of Saketa and the siege of Madhyamika.[135]

From a

Swat area of Gandhara, dated to the 1st century BC, we know about the Greek meridarch Theodorus
.

Trade

Periplus Maris Erythraei
 1st century CE

Ptolemy II Philadelphus founded the Myos Hormos and selected it as the principal harbour of the trade with India, in preference to Arsinoe, since Arsinoe was at the head of the Red Sea and there was a tedious and difficult navigation down the Heroopolite Gulf. Vessels from Myos Hormos traded with Africa, Arabia, and India.[136]

During the Roman and Byzantine period there were trade relations. (Indo-Roman trade relations)

Ancient Greek: Σταθμοί Παρθικοί) described the trade route between the Levant and India in the 1st century BC.[137]

The so-called Muziris papyrus, written in Greek, contains crucial information regarding the cargo of a ship named the Hermapollon that sailed back to Egypt from Muziris in India.[138] Muziris is also mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as one of the Indian ports Greek ships were sailing to.[139]

Some of the Indian ports Greek merchants visited were

Barygaza, Barbarikon, Minnagara, Ujjain and Ariaca
.

Tacola (Τάκωλα) was a place on the west coast of the Aurea Chersonesus, in India extra Gangem, which Ptolemy calls an emporium.[140]

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea was a manual written in Greek for navigators who carried trade between the Roman Empire and other regions, including ancient India. It gives detailed information about the ports, routes and commodities.

Ancient Greek and Roman writers also describe the ports of the Arabia Felix, which were used for the Indian trade.

Justinian and promised to settle the silk question. Thus, the Byzantines would not need to buy the silk from the Persians.[141]

Chanakya mentioned Greeks and their polities in his Arthashastra.

Athenaeus in the Deipnosophistae wrote that Euthydemus the Athenian in his book on Vegetables calls a species of gourd as the Indian gourd (σικύαν Ἰνδικὴν) because the seed of that gourd was originally introduced from India.[142]

After Alexander's period, there were trade relations between the Greek world and Sri Lanka. Ancient writers describe in details what was traded. Cosmas Indicopleustes wrote about a specific Greek merchant named ‘Sopatrus’ who had a trade relationship with Sri Lanka.[143] At the Jaffna Peninsula, archaeologists discovered gold coins with Greek inscriptions, most probably belonging to the Byzantine period.[143]

Travelers and explorers

The Greek explorer

Darius I of Persia to follow the course of the Indus River
and discover where it led.

Nearchus, described India and the people living there.[57]

Onecicritus of Astypaleia who was a captain of Great Alexander's navy wrote about Sri Lanka.[143]

The Greek ethnographer and explorer of the

Megasthenes' Herakles) in India. Deimachus, who was an ambassador to the court of Bindusara, also wrote about India.[57][144]

Strabo didn't believe what the people wrote about India to his age, because they included a lot of fables in their writings, especially Deimachus and Megasthenes, while Onesicritus and Nearchus together with some others wrote "a few words of truth." On the other hand, he trusted the works of Patrocles and Eratosthenes.[145]

Patrocles was an admiral of Seleucus who sailed into the Indian Ocean, and left an account.[1]

Nicholas of Damascus in Antioch and later he also traveled to Athens, where he burned himself to death.[146][147] Plutarch wrote that at Athens, his "Indian tomb" was still there to this days.[148]

Eudoxus of Cyzicus and Hippalus traveled to India with their ships.

Claudius Ptolemy mentions in his work a Greek captain named Diogenes, who was returning from his trip to India when the winds blew him off course and he had to stop below the Horn of Africa. Since the winds were not favorable to travel north, he traveled south and explored the east coast of Africa where he found the city of Rhapta. According to Ptolemy, this happened during the second trip of Diogenes to India.[149]

The Suda, a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, mentioned that when Theophilos the Indian returned from India, he spent time in Antioch and the Emperor Constantius II treated him with all honor and respect.[150]

Edesius (Ἐδέσιος) to India.[151][152]

The Christian Topography by Cosmas Indicopleustes was an essay in scientific geography written in Greek with illustrations and maps. The work mentioned India, and the writer Cosmas Indicopleustes had actually made the journey, and he described and sketched some of what he saw in his topography. Indicopleustes means "Cosmas who sailed to India".

Cities and places

Further information: List of cities founded by Alexander the Great

Around 510 BC, Persians, under the rule of Darius the Great moved the inhabitants of the Greek colony of Barca in Libya into Bactria.[153] Later, Xerxes I also settled there with the "Branchidae," who were the descendants of Greek priests who had once lived at Didyma.[154] Herodotus also records Persian generals threatening to enslave daughters of the revolting Ionians and send them to Bactria if they didn't stop fighting.[155]

According to legend the god Dionysus founded the city of Nysa and named it Nysa and the land Nysaea (Νυσαία) after his nurse and he named the mountain near the city, Meron (Μηρὸν) (i.e. thigh), because he grew in the thigh of Zeus.[6][7] When Alexander arrived at the city, he and his Companion cavalry went to the mountain, where they made ivy garlands and crowned themselves with them, singing hymns in honor of Dionysus. Alexander also offered sacrifices to Dionysus, and feasted in company with his companions.[7]

Alexandria Bucephalous. He also founded a city and named it after his dog, Peritas.[157] In addition, he ordered Philip (son of Machatas) to build the Alexandria on the Indus. He also founded other cities in India (for more info see List of cities founded by Alexander the Great
).

Quintus Curtius Rufus wrote that Alexander founded a number of cities in the Indus Delta, but most probably he meant some garrisons.[158]

Pliny the Elder wrote that Nearchus founded the town of Arbis during his voyage to India.[159]

The ancient Greeks called the modern

Ancient Greek: Κόλπος Γαγγητικός), meaning "Gulf of the Ganges".[160][161]

According to Ptolemy, many Greek cities were founded by the Greco-Bactrians in northern India.[89] The cities of Sirkap and Demetriapolis were founded by Demetrius I of Bactria.

Eucratideia was founded by Eucratides I.

Panchaia was an island paradise located in the Indian Ocean mentioned by Greek writers.

Claudius Aelianus wrote that there were Macedonians who settled in India in the cities founded by Alexander.[162]

Contacossyla (Κοντακόσσυλα) and Allosygna were

Masulipatam).[163][164]

Maliarpha (Μαλιάρφα,) was a place of considerable commerce in the territory of the Arvarni.[165]

Cretan mercenaries.[130]

In addition to the aforementioned cities, Stephanus of Byzantium also described many other Indian cities and places.

The Greeks called the Punjab region Pentapotamía (Greek: Πενταποταμία), meaning five rivers.[166]

Caspeiria (Κασπειρία) was a district of India intra Gangem with Ptolemy naming 18 cities there, including the Caspeira (Κάσπειρα)[167] and the Rarassa (Ῥαράσσα or Ἠράρασα).[168]

Caspatyrus (Κασπάτυρος) or Caspapyrus (Κασπάπυρος) was a city in the district of Pactyice.[169]

Calinipaxa was a city in India, intra Gangem, made known to the Greeks by the expedition of Seleucus I Nicator.[170]

Gange (Γάγγη), according to Ptolemy, was the capital of the Gangaridae, at the mouth of the Ganges river. While Strabo speaks of a town with a similar name but places it far up the river, in the vicinity of

Palibothra or Patna
. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mention a city called Ganges (Γάγγης).[171]

The Greeks called the Eastern Himalayas in the district of India intra Gangem Damassi Montes/Mountains (τὰ Δάμασσα ὄρη).[172]

The

Syrastrene (Συραστρηνή). Ptolemy mentions Syrastra, which may have once been its capital.[173] Larica (Λαρική) was a rich commercial district between Syrastrene and Ariaca.[174]

Dyrta (τὰ Δύρτα) was a small town in the country of the Assacani[175]

Peperine (Πεπερίνη), was an island off the south-west coast of India, undoubtedly derived its name from producing pepper.[176]

Pactyice (Πακτϋική), a district of North-Western India.[177]

Triglyphon was the metropolis and royal residence of Cirrhadia (the modern

Tipperah).[178]

Palimbothra (Παλιμβόθρα) was one of the most important cities in India.[179]

Taprobana/Taprobane-Palaesimundu-Salice

At the

Pandukabhaya settled in the West Gate of Anuradhapura were not the second or third generation of Greeks who arrived in northwest India but were men who, just two decades ago at the most, left Greek homelands as Alexander's camp followers and came to Sri Lanka with or in the wake of Alexander's troops. When their fellow Greeks showed reluctance to push further south, these Greeks apparently had done so.”[180] The Greeks called Sri Lanka Taprobana, some Greek authors also used Palaisimoundou, Salike and Sieladiba.[143]
Cirrhadia ,

Palaesimundum (Παλαισιμούνδου) was a town in Taprobane, but in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea the writer inform us that at his time the whole island was called like this (Ptolemy and Stephanus state that the island was called Simundum (Σιμούνδου), but it is very probable that they made a mistake and the correct name was Palaesimundum). Later the island was also called Salice (Σαλική).[181]

Ancient Greek: Φᾶσις).[183]
Ptolemy called one of a group of islands which surrounded Sri Lanka Nagadiba (Greek: Ναγάδιβα) (see Jaffna Peninsula).[184] Talacory (Ταλάκωρυ) or Aacote (Ἀακότη) was a port emporium on the north-western side of Taprobana.[185]

Tarachi (Τάραχοι) was a tribe in Taprobane who had a port called Ἡλίου λίμην.[186]

Galiba (Γάλιβα ἄκρα) was a promontory on the northern coast of Taprobane, close to the Cory island. Certain mountains in the immediate neighbourhood of it had the same name Γάλιβα ὄρη and the inhabitants of which were called Galibi (Γάλιβοι).[187]

Cape of Zeus (Δίος ἄκρα) was a promontory on the south of Taprobane. Its exact position cannot be identified, but it must have been close to present Galle, if it be not the same.[188]

Tribes

Greek writers mention many tribes. For example, the:

Other

Pāṇini, an ancient Sanskrit grammarian, was acquainted with the word yavana (Greek) in his composition.

Kātyāyana was a Sanskrit grammarian, mathematician and Vedic priest who lived in ancient India. He explained the term yavanānī as the script of the Yavanas. He took the same line as Pāṇini that the Old Persian term yauna became Sanskritised to name all Greeks.

Theodectes thought the dark color of some Indians was because of the sun.[61]

Athenaeus in his Deipnosophistae mentions a Basilis (Βάσιλις) who wrote a series of books about the History of India.[211]

Claudius Aelianus wrote about the animals in India.[212] He also mentioned that there were Macedonians who settled in India in the cities founded by Alexander.[162]

The Unani System of Medicine, a traditional system of medicine practiced in India, refers to Graeco-Arabic medicine, which is based on the teachings of Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen. The ancient Greek medical system enriched with local elements was received positively by the Indian people and the physicians.[213]

India and Indians are mentioned in some of the Martial's Epigrams.[214]

A lot of entries in the Suda, the Byzantine encyclopedia, are about India.

Modern archaeological evidence from Bronze Age

grey langur. Grey langurs live in southern Asia in what is now Nepal, Bhutan and India, particularly in the Indus Valley. Researcher say Mesopotamia may have functioned as an intermediary that enabled the movement of goods, raw materials, people, and iconography between the east and west. Mesopotamia may have even afforded an opportunity for Aegean peoples to encounter the creatures themselves, first-hand.[215][216][217]

The historian Peter Frankopan mentioned that “Long-distance trade, and connections between the Mediterranean, Asia and the Indian Ocean are well attested, even in this period (Bronze Age), for high value, expensive objects.”[218]

The area of modern Hala Sultan Tekke in Cyprus was an important trade hub during the Late Bronze Age, with large quantities of imported goods from neighbouring regions but also long distance regions, like Afghanistan and India.[219][220]

See also

Greco-Buddhism

Trade and relations

Other

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  183. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, § Ph660.2
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  209. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), Taluctae
  210. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), Tabassi
  211. ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, 9.390
  212. ^ Aelian, Characteristics of Animals
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  215. ^ A new identification of the monkeys depicted in a Bronze Age wall painting from Akrotiri, Thera
  216. ^ Ancient monkey painting suggests Bronze Age Greeks travelled widely
  217. ^ How we solved the Greek monkey mystery – and found an important clue to Bronze Age world
  218. ^ Painted Bronze Age Monkeys Hint at the Interconnectedness of the Ancient World
  219. ^ Cyprus's copper deposits created one of the most important trade hubs in the Bronze Age
  220. ^ Tombs rich in artifacts discovered by Swedish expedition in Cyprus

Bibliography

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