Andalusia

In this period, the name "Al-Andalus" was applied to the Iberian Peninsula, and later it referred to the parts not controlled by the Gothic states in the North. The Muslim rulers in Al-Andalus were economic invaders and interested in collecting taxes; social changes imposed on the native populace were mainly confined to geographical, political and legal conveniences.^{[citation needed]} Al-Andalus remained connected to other states under Muslim rule; also trade routes between it and Constantinople and Alexandria remained open, while many cultural features of the Roman Empire were transmitted throughout Europe and the Near East by its successor state, the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine architecture is an example of such cultural diffusion continuing even after the collapse of the empire.^[75]

Nevertheless, the

By the 10th century, the northern Kingdoms of Spain and other European Crowns had begun what would eventually become the Reconquista: the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula for Christendom. Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman suffered some minor military defeats, but often managed to manipulate the Gothic northern kingdoms to act against each other's interests. Al-Hakam achieved military successes, but at the expense of uniting the north against him. In the 10th century the Saracen rulers of Andalusia had a Slavic army of 13,750 men.^[77]

Seven months later, on 3 August 1492

Contacts between Spain and the Americas, including royal administration and the shipping trade from Asia and America for over three hundred years, came almost exclusively through the south of Spain, specially Seville and Cadiz ports.^[81]

As a result, it became the wealthiest, most influential region in Spain and amongst the most influential in Europe. For example, the

In the first half of the 16th century plague was still prevalent in Spain. According to George C. Kohn, "One of the worst epidemics of the century, whose miseries were accompanied by severe drought and food shortage, started in 1505; by 1507, about 100,000 people had died in Andalusia alone. Andalusia was struck once again in 1646. For three years, plague haunted the entire region, causing perhaps as many as 200,000 deaths, especially in Málaga and Seville."^[83]

A second insurrection, the

In 1810–12 Spanish troops strongly resisted the French occupation during the Peninsular War (part of the Napoleonic Wars).^[85]

Andalusia profited from the Spanish overseas empire, although much trade and finance eventually came to be controlled by other parts of Europe to where it was ultimately destined. In the 18th century, commerce from other parts of Spain began to displace Andalusian commerce when the Spanish government ended Andalusia's trading monopoly with the colonies in the Americas. The loss of the empire in the 1820s hurt the economy of the region, particularly the cities that had benefited from the trade and ship building. The construction of railways in the latter part of the 19th century enabled Andalusia to better develop its agricultural potential and it became an exporter of food. While industrialisation was taking off in the northern Spanish regions of Catalonia and the Basque country, Andalusia remained traditional and displayed a deep social division between a small class of wealthy landowners and a population made up largely of poor agricultural labourers and tradesmen.^{[citation needed]}

Francoist oppressions

Andalusia was one of the worst-affected regions of Spain by Francisco Franco's brutal campaign of mass-murder and political suppression called the White Terror during and after the Spanish Civil War. The Nationalist rebels bombed and seized the working-class districts of the main Andalusian cities in the first days of the war,^[86] and afterwards went on to execute thousands of workers and militants of the leftist parties: in the city of Córdoba 4,000;^[87] in the city of Granada 5,000;^[88] in the city of Seville 3,028;^[89] and in the city of Huelva 2,000 killed and 2,500 disappeared.^[90] The city of Málaga, occupied by the Nationalists in February 1937 following the Battle of Málaga, experienced one of the harshest repressions following Francoist victory with an estimated total of 17,000 people summarily executed.^{[91][92][93][94]} Carlos Arias Navarro, then a young lawyer who as public prosecutor signed thousands of execution warrants in the trials set up by the triumphant rightists, became known as "The Butcher of Málaga" (Carnicero de Málaga).^[95]

Paul Preston estimates the total number of victims of deliberately killed by the Nationalists in Andalusia at 55,000.^[96]

Government and politics

Andalusia is one of the 17

The Autonomous Community of Andalusia was formed in accord with a referendum of 28 February 1980

Article 1 of the 1981 Statute of Autonomy justifies autonomy based on the region's "historical identity, on the self-government that the Constitution permits every nationality, on outright equality to the rest of the nationalities and regions that compose Spain, and with a power that emanates from the Andalusian Constitution and people, reflected in its Statute of Autonomy".[98]

In October 2006 the constitutional commission of the Cortes Generales (the national legislature of Spain), with favorable votes from the left-of-center Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), the leftist United Left (IU) and the right-of-center People's Party (PP), approved a new Statute of Autonomy for Andalusia, whose preamble refers to the community as a "national reality" (realidad nacional):

The Andalusianist Manifesto of Córdoba described Andalusia as a national reality in 1919, whose spirit the Andalusians took up outright through the process of self-government recognized in our Magna Carta. In 1978 the Andalusians broadly backed the constitutional consensus. Today, the Constitution, in its Article 2, recognizes Andalusia as a nationality as part of the indissoluble unity of the Spanish nation.^[36]

— Andalusian Statute of Autonomy on Wikisource, in Spanish

On 2 November 2006 the Spanish Chamber Deputies ratified the text of the Constitutional Commission with 306 votes in favor, none opposed, and 2 abstentions. This was the first time a Spanish Organic Law adopting a Statute of Autonomy was approved with no opposing votes. The Senate, in a plenary session of 20 December 2006, ratified the referendum to be voted upon by the Andalusian public 18 February 2007.

The Statute of Autonomy spells out Andalusia's distinct institutions of government and administration. Chief among these is the

The Andalusian Statute of Autonomy recognizes Seville as the autonomy's capital. The Andalusian Autonomous Government is located there. The region's highest court, the

The Andalusian Autonomous Government (Junta de Andalucía) is the institution of self-government of the Autonomous Community of Andalusia. Within the government, the

The Parliament of Andalusia, its Autonomic Legislative Assembly, develops and approves laws and elects and removes the President.[102] Elections to the Andalusian Parliament follow a democratic formula through which the citizens elect 109 representatives. After the approval of the Statute of Autonomy through Organic Law 6/1981 on 20 December 1981, the first elections to the autonomic parliament took place 23 May 1982. Further elections have occurred in 1986, 1990, 1994, 1996, 2000, 2004, and 2008.

The current (2008–2012) legislature includes representatives of the PSOE-A (Andalusian branch of the left-of-center PSOE), PP-A (Andalusian branch of the right-of-center PP) and IULV-CA (Andalusian branch of the leftist IU).^[103]

Judicial power

The

Andalusia consists of eight provinces. The latter were established by Javier de Burgos in the 1833 territorial division of Spain. Each of the Andalusian provinces bears the same name as its capital:^[105]

Province	Capital	Population	Density	Municipalities	Legal districts
Almería	Almería	753,920	85.9/km2 (222/sq mi)	102 municipalities	8
Cádiz	Cádiz	1,250,539	168.1/km2 (435/sq mi)	44 municipalities	14
Córdoba	Córdoba	773,997	56.2/km2 (146/sq mi)	75 municipalities	12
Granada	Granada	930,181	73.5/km2 (190/sq mi)	170 municipalities	9
Huelva	Huelva	530,824	52.4/km2 (136/sq mi)	79 municipalities	6
Jaén	Jaén	620,242	45.9/km2 (119/sq mi)	97 municipalities	10
Málaga	Málaga	1,751,600	239.7/km2 (621/sq mi)	102 municipalities	11
Seville	Seville	1,957,210	139.4/km2 (361/sq mi)	105 municipalities	15

Andalusia is traditionally divided into two historical subregions: Upper Andalusia or Eastern Andalusia (Andalucía Oriental), consisting of the provinces of Almería, Granada, Jaén, and Málaga, and Lower Andalusia or Western Andalusia (Andalucía Occidental), consisting of the provinces of Cádiz, Córdoba, Huelva and Seville.

Comarcas and mancomunidades

Within the various autonomous communities of Spain, comarcas are comparable to shires (or, in some countries, counties) in the English-speaking world. Unlike in some of Spain's other autonomous communities, under the original 1981 Statute of Autonomy, the comarcas of Andalusia had no formal recognition, but, in practice, they still had informal recognition as geographic, cultural, historical, or in some cases administrative entities. The 2007 Statute of Autonomy echoes this practice, and mentions comarcas in Article 97 of Title III, which defines the significance of comarcas and establishes a basis for formal recognition in future legislation.^[106]

The current statutory entity that most closely resembles a comarca is the mancomunidad, a freely chosen, bottom-up association of municipalities intended as an instrument of socioeconomic development and coordination between municipal governments in specific areas.^[105][107]

Municipalities and local entities

Beyond the level of provinces, Andalusia is further divided into 774 municipalities (municipios).^[105] The municipalities of Andalusia are regulated by Title III of the Statute of Autonomy, Articles 91–95, which establishes the municipality as the basic territorial entity of Andalusia, each of which has legal personhood and autonomy in many aspects of its internal affairs. At the municipal level, representation, government and administration is performed by the ayuntamiento (municipal government), which has competency for urban planning, community social services, supply and treatment of water, collection and treatment of waste, and promotion of tourism, culture, and sports, among other matters established by law.^[108]

In conformity with the intent to devolve control as locally as possible, in many cases, separate nuclei of population within municipal borders each administer their own interests. These are variously known as pedanías ("hamlets"), villas ("villages"), aldeas (also usually rendered as "villages"), or other similar names.^[105]

Demographics

Andalusia ranks first by population among the 17 autonomous communities of Spain. The estimated population at the beginning of 2023 was 8,538,376. The population is concentrated, above all, in the provincial capitals and along the coasts, so that the level of urbanization is quite high; half the population is concentrated in the 28 cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants. The population is aging, although the process of immigration is countering the inversion of the population pyramid.^[109]

Main cities

Largest municipalities in Andalusia INE (1 January 2023)[110]
	Rank		Province	Pop.	Rank		Province	Pop.
Seville Málaga	1	Seville	Seville	684,025	11	Jaén	Jaén	111,888	Córdoba Granada
	2	Málaga	Málaga	586,384	12	Cádiz	Cádiz	111,811
	3	Córdoba	Córdoba	323,763	13	Roquetas de Mar	Almería	106,510
	4	Granada	Granada	230,595	14	San Fernando	Cádiz	93,927
	5	Jerez de la Frontera	Cádiz	213,231	15	Mijas	Málaga	91,691
	6	Almería	Almería	200,578	16	El Ejido	Almería	89,975
	7	Marbella	Málaga	156,295	17	El Puerto de Santa María	Cádiz	89,813
	8	Huelva	Huelva	142,532	18	Chiclana de la Frontera	Cádiz	88,709
	9	Dos Hermanas	Seville	138,981	19	Fuengirola	Málaga	85,598
	10	Algeciras	Cádiz	123,639	20	Vélez-Málaga	Málaga	85,377

Population change

At the end of the 20th century, Andalusia was in the last phase of

At the beginning of the 21st century, statistics show a slight increase in the birth rate, due in large part to the higher birth rate among immigrants.^[114][115] The result is that as of 2009, the trend toward rejuvenation of the population is among the strongest of any autonomous community of Spain, or of any comparable region in Europe.^[113]

Structure

At the beginning of the 21st century, the population structure of Andalusia shows a clear inversion of the population pyramid, with the largest cohorts falling between ages 25 and 50.^[116] Comparison of the population pyramid in 2008 to that in 1986 shows:

1. A clear decrease in the population under the age of 25, due to a declining birth rate.
2. An increase in the adult population, as the earlier, larger cohort born in the "baby boom" of the 1960s and 1970s reach adulthood. This effect has been exacerbated by immigration: the largest contingent of immigrants are young adults.
3. A further increase in the adult population, and especially the older adult population, due to increased life expectancy.

As far as composition by sex, two aspects stand out: the higher percentage of women in the elderly population, owing to women's longer life expectancy, and, on the other hand, the higher percentage of men of working age, due in large part to a predominantly male immigrant population.^[113]

Immigration

In 2005, 5.35 percent of the population of Andalusia were born outside of Spain. This is a relatively low number for a Spanish region, the national average being three percentage points higher. The immigrants are not evenly distributed among the Andalusian provinces: Almería, with a 15.20 percent immigrant population, is third among all provinces in Spain, while at the other extreme Jaén is only 2.07 percent immigrants and Córdoba 1.77 percent. The predominant nationalities among the immigrant populations are Moroccan (92,500, constituting 17.79 percent of the foreigners living in Andalusia) and British (15.25 percent across the region). When comparing world regions rather than individual countries, the single largest immigrant block is from the region of Latin America, outnumbering not only all North Africans, but also all non-Spanish Western Europeans.^[117] Demographically, this group has provided an important addition to the Andalusian labor force.^[114][115]

Economy

Andalusia is traditionally an agricultural area, but the

The primary sector is divided into a number of subsectors: agriculture, commercial fishing, animal husbandry, hunting, forestry, mining, and energy.

Agriculture, husbandry, hunting, and forestry

The most important tree crops are

In monetary terms, by far the most productive and competitive agriculture in Andalusia is the intensive forced cultivation of strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and other fruits grown under hothouse conditions under clear plastic, often in sandy zones, on the coasts, in Almería and Huelva.[129]

Organic farming has recently undergone rapid expansion in Andalusia, mainly for export to European markets but with increasing demand developing in Spain.^[130]

Andalusia has a long tradition of animal husbandry and livestock farming, but it is now restricted mainly to mountain meadows, where there is less pressure from other potential uses. Andalusians have a long and colourful history of dog breeding that can be observed throughout the region today. The raising of livestock now plays a semi-marginal role in the Andalusian economy, constituting only 15 percent of the primary sector, half the number for Spain taken as a whole.^[131]

"Extensive" raising of livestock grazes the animals on natural or cultivated pastures, whereas "intensive" raising of livestock is based in fodder rather than pasture. Although the productivity is higher than with extensive techniques, the economics are quite different. While intensive techniques now dominate in Europe and even in other regions of Spain, most of Andalusia's cattle, virtually all of its sheep and goats, and a good portion of its pigs are raised by extensive farming in mountain pastures. This includes the Black Iberian pigs that are the source of Jamón ibérico. Andalusia's native sheep and goats present a great economic opportunity in a Europe where animal products are generally in strong supply, but the sheep and goat meat, milk, and leather (and the products derived from these) are relatively scarce. Dogs are bred not just as companion animals, but also as herding animals used by goat and sheep herders.

Hunting remains relatively important in Andalusia, but has largely lost its character as a means of obtaining food. It is now more of a leisure activity linked to the mountain areas and complementary to forestry and the raising of livestock.^[132] Dogs are frequently used as hunting companions to retrieve killed game.

The Andalusian

Fishing is a longstanding tradition on the Andalusian coasts. Fish and other seafood have long figured prominently in the local diet and in the local gastronomic culture: fried fish (pescaito frito in local dialect), white prawns, almadraba tuna, among others. The Andalusian fishing fleet is Spain's second largest, after Galicia, and Andalusia's 38 fishing ports are the most of any Spanish autonomous community.^[135] Commercial fishing produces only 0.5 percent of the product of the regional primary sector by value, but there are areas where it has far greater importance. In the province of Huelva it constitutes 20 percent of the primary sector, and locally in Punta Umbría 70 percent of the work force is involved in commercial fishing.^[136]

Failure to comply with fisheries laws regarding the use of trawling, urban pollution of the seacoast, destruction of habitats by coastal construction (for example, alteration of the mouths of rivers, construction of ports), and diminution of fisheries by overexploitation^[137] have created a permanent crisis in the Andalusian fisheries, justifying attempts to convert the fishing fleet. The decrease in fish stocks has led to the rise of aquaculture, including fish farming both on the coasts and in the interior.^[138]

Mining

Despite the general poor returns in recent years,

The Andalusian industrial sector has always been relatively small. Nevertheless, in 2007, Andalusian industry earned 11.979 million euros and employed more than 290,000 workers. This represented 9.15 percent of regional GDP, far below the 15.08 the secondary sector represents in the economy of Spain as a whole.[140] By analyzing the different subsectors of the food industry Andalusian industry accounts for more than 16% of total production. In a comparison with the Spanish economy, this subsector is virtually the only food that has some weight in the national economy with 16.16%. Lies far behind the manufacturing sector of shipping materials just over 10% of the Spanish economy. Companies like Cruzcampo (Heineken Group), Puleva, Domecq, Santana Motors or Renault-Andalusia, are exponents of these two subsectors. Of note is the Andalusian aeronautical sector, which is second nationally only behind Madrid and represents approximately 21% of total turnover in terms of employment, highlighting companies like Airbus, Airbus Military, or the newly formed Aerospace Alestis. On the contrary it is symptomatic of how little weight the regional economy in such important sectors such as textiles or electronics at the national level.^{[citation needed]}

Andalusian industry is also characterized by a specialization in industrial activities of transforming raw agricultural and mineral materials. This is largely done by small enterprises without the public or foreign investment more typical of a high level of industrialization.

Tertiary sector: services

In recent decades the Andalusian tertiary (service) sector has grown greatly, and has come to constitute the majority of the regional economy, as is typical of contemporary economies in developed nations.

1. Andalusian capital found it impossible to compete in the industrial sector against more developed regions, and was obligated to invest in sectors that were easier to enter.

2. The absence of an industrial sector that could absorb displaced agricultural workers and artisans led to the proliferation of services with rather low productivity. This unequal development compared to other regions led to a hypertrophied and unproductive service sector, which has tended to reinforce underdevelopment, because it has not led to large accumulations of capital.^[142][143]

Tourism in Andalusia

Due in part to the relatively mild winter and spring climate, the south of Spain is attractive to overseas visitors–especially tourists from Northern Europe. While inland areas such as

Among the autonomous communities, Andalusia is second only to Catalonia in tourism, with nearly 30 million visitors every year. The principal tourist destinations in Andalusia are the Costa del Sol and (secondarily) the Sierra Nevada. As discussed above, Andalusia is one of the sunniest and warmest places in Europe, making it a center of "sun and sand" tourism,^[144] but not only it. Around 70 percent of the lodging capacity and 75 percent of the nights booked in Andalusian hotels are in coastal municipalities. The largest number of tourists come in August—13.26 percent of the nights booked throughout the year—and the smallest number in December—5.36 percent.

On the west (Atlantic) coast are the

Together with "sand and sun" tourism, there has also been a strong increase in nature tourism in the interior, as well as cultural tourism, sport tourism, and conventions.^{[citation needed]} One example of sport and nature tourism is the ski resort at Sierra Nevada National Park.

As for cultural tourism, there are hundreds of cultural tourist destinations: cathedrals, castles, forts, monasteries, and historic city centers and a wide variety of museums.

It can be highlighted that Spain has seven of its 42 cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Andalucia:

• Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín, Granada (1984,1994)
• Antequera Dolmens Site (2016)
• 10th Century Caliphate City of
  Medina Azahara
  (2018)
• Cathedral, Alcázar and Archivo de Indias in Seville (1987)
• Historic centre of Córdoba (1984,1994)
• Renaissance Monumental Ensembles of Úbeda and Baeza (2003)
• Rock Art of the Mediterranean Basin on the Iberian Peninsula (1998)

Further, there are the

near Tarifa.

Andalusia was the birthplace of such great painters as

house museum 1982–1998, but is now mostly offices for the Andalusian Council of Culture. The CAC Málaga (Museum of Modern Art) Archived 20 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine is the most visited museum of Andalusia^[151] and has offered exhibitions of artists such as Louise Bourgeois, Jake and Dinos Chapman, Gerhard Richter, Anish Kapoor, Ron Mueck or Rodney Graham. Malaga is also located part of the private Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection at Carmen Thyssen Museum

.

There are numerous other significant museums around the region, both of paintings and of archeological artifacts such as gold jewelry, pottery and other ceramics, and other works that demonstrate the region's artisanal traditions.

The Council of Government has designated the following "Municipios Turísticos": in Almería, Roquetas de Mar; in Cádiz, Chiclana de la Frontera, Chipiona, Conil de la Frontera, Grazalema, Rota, and Tarifa; in Granada, Almuñécar; in Huelva, Aracena; in Jaén, Cazorla; in Málaga, Benalmádena, Fuengirola, Nerja, Rincón de la Victoria, Ronda, and Torremolinos; in Seville, Santiponce.

Monuments and features

• Alcazaba, Almería
• Cueva de Menga, Antequera (Málaga)
• El Torcal, Antequera (Málaga)
• Córdoba
• Córdoba
• Mudejar Quarter, Frigiliana (Málaga)
• Alhambra, Granada
• Palace of Charles V, Granada
• Charterhouse, Granada
• Albayzín, Granada
• La Rabida Monastery, Palos de la Frontera (Huelva
  )
• Castle of Santa Catalina, Jaén
• Jaén Cathedral, Jaén
• Úbeda and Baeza, Jaén
• Alcazaba, Málaga
• Buenavista Palace, Málaga
• Málaga Cathedral, Málaga
• Puente Nuevo, Ronda (Málaga)
• Caves of Nerja, Nerja (Málaga)
• Ronda Bullring, Ronda (Málaga)
• Giralda, Seville
• Torre del Oro, Seville
• Plaza de España, Seville
• Seville Cathedral, Seville
• Alcázar of Seville, Seville
• Almonaster la Real Mosque, Almonaster la Real (Huelva)

Unemployment

The unemployment rate stood at 25.5% in 2017 and was one of the highest in Spain and Europe.^[152]

Year	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
unemployment rate (in %)	12.6%	12.8%	17.7%	25.2%	27.8%	30.1%	34.4%	36.2%	34.8%	31.5%	28.9%	25.5%

Infrastructure

Transport

As in any modern society, transport systems are an essential structural element of the functioning of Andalusia. The transportation network facilitates territorial coordination, economic development and distribution, and intercity transportation.^[153]

In urban transport, underdeveloped public transport systems put pedestrian traffic and other non-motorized traffic are at a disadvantage compared to the use of private vehicles. Several Andalusian capitals—Córdoba, Granada and Seville—have recently been trying to remedy this by strengthening their public transport systems and providing a better infrastructure for the use of bicycles.^[154] There are now three rapid transit systems operating in Andalucia – the Seville Metro, Málaga Metro and Granada Metro. Cercanías commuter rail networks operate in Seville, Málaga and Cádiz.

For over a century, the conventional rail network has been centralized on the regional capital, Seville, and the national capital, Madrid; in general, there are no direct connections between provincial capitals. High-speed AVE trains run from Madrid via Córdoba to Seville and Málaga, from which a branch from Antequera to Granada opened in 2019. Further AVE routes are under construction.^[155] The Madrid-Córdoba-Seville route was the first high-velocity route in Spain (operating since 1992). Other principal routes are the one from Algeciras to Seville and from Almería via Granada to Madrid.

Most of the principal roads have been converted into

European route E05 in the International E-road network. The other main road in the region is the portion of European route E15, which runs as the Autovia del Mediterráneo along the Spanish Mediterranean coast. Parts of this constitute the superhighway Autopista AP-7, while in other areas it is Autovía A-7

. Both of these roads run generally east–west, although the Autovía A-4 turns to the south in western Andalusia.

Other first-order roads include the

European route E902

, which runs south from Jaén to the Mediterranean coast at Motril.

As of 2008 Andalusia has six public airports, all of which can legally handle international flights. The Málaga Airport is dominant, handling 60.67 percent of passengers^[156] and 85 percent of its international traffic.^[157] The Seville Airport handles another 20.12 percent of traffic, and the Jerez Airport 7.17 percent, so that these three airports account for 87.96 percent of traffic.^[156]

Málaga Airport is the international airport that offers a wide variety of international destinations. It has a daily link with twenty cities in Spain and over a hundred cities in Europe (mainly in Great Britain, Central Europe and the Nordic countries but also the main cities of Eastern Europe: Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Sofia, Riga or Bucharest), North Africa, Middle East (Riyadh, Jeddah and Kuwait) and North America (New York, Toronto and Montreal).

The main ports are Algeciras (for freight and container traffic) and Málaga for cruise ships. Algeciras is Spain's leading commercial port, with 60,000,000 tonnes (66,000,000 short tons) of cargo in 2004.^[158] Seville has Spain's only commercial river port. Other significant commercial ports in Andalusia are the ports of the Bay of Cádiz, Almería and Huelva.

The Council of Government has approved a Plan of Infrastructures for the Sustainability of Transport in Andalusia (PISTA) 2007–2013, which plans an investment of 30 billion euros during that period.^[159]

Energy infrastructure

The lack of high-quality

wind energy. The Andalusian Energy Agency established in 2005 by the autonomous government, is a new governmental organ charged with the development of energy policy and provision of a sufficient supply of energy for the community.^[153]

The infrastructure for production of

Endesa

in 1996. The

Andasol I y II, planned at Hoya de Guadix in the province of Granada are expected to supply electricity to half a million households.^[161] The Plataforma Solar de Almería (PSA) in the Tabernas Desert is an important center for the exploration of the solar energy.^[162]

The largest wind power firm in the region is the Sociedad Eólica de Andalucía, formed by the merger of Planta Eólica del Sur S.A. and Energía Eólica del Estrecho S.A.

The Medgaz gas pipeline directly connects the Algerian town of Béni Saf to Almería.^[163]

Education

As throughout Spain, basic education in Andalusia is free and compulsory. Students are required to complete ten years of schooling, and may not leave school before the age of 16, after which students may continue on to a baccalaureate, to intermediate vocational education, to intermediate-level schooling in arts and design, to intermediate sports studies, or to the working world.

Andalusia has a tradition of higher education dating back to the

Modern Age and the University of Granada, University of Baeza, and University of Osuna

.

As of 2009,[update] there were ten private or public universities in Andalusia. University studies are structured in cycles, awarding degrees based on

Bologna process, which the Andalusian universities are adopting in accord with the other universities of the European Higher Education Area

.

Healthcare

Responsibility for healthcare jurisdictions devolved from the Spanish government to Andalusia with the enactment of the Statute of Autonomy. Thus, the Andalusian Health Service (Servicio Andaluz de Salud) currently manages almost all public health resources of the Community, with such exceptions as health resources for prisoners and members of the military, which remain under central administration.

Science and technology

According to the Outreach Program for Science in Andalusia, Andalusia contributes 14 percent of Spain's scientific production behind only Madrid and Catalonia among the autonomous communities,

GDP is below the national average.^[165]

The lack of research capacity in business and the low participation of the private sector in research has resulted in R&D taking place largely in the public sector.

The Council of Innovation, Science and Business is the organ of the autonomous government responsible for universities, research, technological development, industry, and energy. The council coordinates and initiates scientific and technical innovation through specialized centers an initiatives such as the Andalusian Center for Marine Science and Technology (Centro Andaluz de Ciencia y Tecnología Marina) and Technological Corporation of Andalusia (Corporación Tecnológica de Andalucía).

Within the private sphere, although also promoted by public administration, technology parks have been established throughout the Community, such as the

Ubuntu

desktop computers in their schools.

Media

Andalusia has international, national, regional, and local media organizations, which are active gathering and disseminating information (as well as creating and disseminating entertainment).

The most notable is the public Radio y Televisión de Andalucía (RTVA), broadcasting on two regional television channels, Canal Sur and Canal Sur 2, four regional radio stations, Canal Sur Radio, Canal Fiesta Radio, Radio Andalucía Información and Canal Flamenco Radio, as well as various digital signals, most notably Canal Sur Andalucía available on cable TV throughout Spain.^[166]

Newspapers

Different newspapers are published for each Andalusian provincial capital, comarca, or important city. Often, the same newspaper organization publishes different local editions with much shared content, with different mastheads and different local coverage. There are also popular papers distributed without charge, again typically with local editions that share much of their content.

No single Andalusian newspaper is distributed throughout the region, not even with local editions. In eastern Andalusia the

Diario Ideal [es] has editions tailored for the provinces of Almería, Granada, and Jaén. Grupo Joly is based in Andalucia, backed by Andalusian capital, and publishes eight daily newspapers there. Efforts to create a newspaper for the entire autonomous region have not succeeded (the most recent as of 2009 was the Diario de Andalucía). The national press (El País, El Mundo, ABC

, etc.) include sections or editions specific to Andalusia.

Public television

Andalusia has two public television stations, both operated by Radio y Televisión de Andalucía (RTVA):

• Canal Sur first broadcast on 28 February 1989 (Andalusia Day).
• Canal Sur 2 first broadcast 5 June 1998. Programming focuses on culture, sports, and programs for children and youth.

In addition, RTVA also operates the national and international cable channel Canal Sur Andalucía, which first broadcast in 1996 as Andalucía Televisión.

Radio

There are four public radio stations in the region, all operated by RTVA:

• Canal Sur Radio [es], first broadcast October 1988.
• Radio Andalucía Información [es], first broadcast September 1998.
• Canal Fiesta Radio [es], first broadcast January 2001.
• Canal Flamenco Radio [es], first broadcast 29 September 2008.

Art and culture

The patrimony of Andalusia has been shaped by its particular history and geography, as well as its complex flows of population. Andalusia has been home to a succession of peoples and civilizations, many very different from one another, each impacting the settled inhabitants. The ancient

In the 19th century, Andalusian culture came to be widely viewed as the Spanish culture par excellence, in part thanks to the perceptions of romantic travellers. In the words of Ortega y Gasset:

Andalusia, which has never shown the swagger nor petulancy of particularism; that has never pretended to the status of a State apart, is, of all the Spanish regions, the one that possesses a culture most radically its own. Throughout the 19th century, Spain has submitted itself to the hegemonic influence of Andalusia. That century began with the Cortes of Cádiz; it ended with the assassination of Cánovas del Castillo, malagueño [from Málaga], and the exaltation of Silvela, no less malagueño. The dominant ideas have an Andalusian accent. One paints Andalusia: a roof-terrace, some flowerpots, blue sky. One reads southern authors. One speaks at all times of the "land of the Most Holy Virgin Mary". The thief from the Sierra Morena and the smuggler are national heroes. All Spain feels its existence justified by the honor of having on its flanks the Andalusian piece of the planet. Around 1900, like so many other things, this changes. The North sits up.^[169]

— Ortega y Gasset, Teoría de Andalucía, 1927

Arts

Andalusia has been the birthplace of many great artists: the classic painters Velázquez, Murillo, and Juan de Valdés Leal; the sculptors Juan Martínez Montañés, Alonso Cano and Pedro de Mena; and such modern painters as Daniel Vázquez Díaz and Pablo Picasso.

The Spanish composer

Architecture

Since the

Some of the greatest architecture in Andalusia was developed across several centuries and civilizations, and the region is particularly famous for its Islamic and Moorish architecture, which includes the Alhambra complex, Generalife^[171] and the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba.

The traditional architecture of Andalusia retains its

Palace of San Telmo in Seville (seat of the current autonomic presidency), the Church of Our Lady of Reposo in Campillos, and the Granada Charterhouse.^[174] Academicism gave the region the Royal Tobacco Factory in Seville and Neoclassicism the nucleus of Cádiz, such as its city hall [es], Royal Prison, and the Oratorio de la Santa Cueva.^{[citation needed}

]

Plaza de España

. Andalusia also preserves an important industrial patrimony related to various economic activities.

Besides the architecture of the cities, there is also much outstanding rural architecture: houses, as well as ranch and farm buildings and

dog houses.^[175]

Sculpture

The

Nasrid

hospital in the Albaicín).

The

Lorenzo Mercadante de Bretaña, Pedro Millán [es], Juan Martínez Montañés, Pedro Roldán, José de Arce [es], Jerónimo Balbás, Alonso Cano, and Pedro de Mena.^[177]

Non-religious sculpture has also existed in Andalusia since antiquity. A fine example from the Renaissance era is the decoration of the Casa de Pilatos in Seville. Nonetheless, non-religious sculpture played a relatively minor role until such 19th-century sculptors as Antonio Susillo [es].

Painting

Pablo Picasso

La Fuensanta, considered a quintessential rendition of Andalusian beauty.^[178]

As in sculpture, there were

Zurbarán, Velázquez and Murillo, as well as art theorists such as Francisco Pacheco. The Museum of Fine Arts of Seville and the Prado^[179]

contain numerous representative works of the Sevillian school of painting.

A specific

costumbrismo andaluz depicts traditional and folkloric Andalusian subjects, such as bullfighting scenes, dogs, and scenes from Andalusia's history. Important artists in this genre include Manuel Barrón, José García Ramos, Gonzalo Bilbao and Julio Romero de Torres. The genre is well represented in the private Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection, part of which is on display at Madrid's Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum and Carmen Thyssen Museum in Málaga.^[180]

Málaga also has been and is an important artistic center. Its most illustrious representative was Pablo Picasso, one of the most influential artists of the 20th century. The city has a Museum and Natal House Foundation, dedicated to the painter.

Literature and philosophy

Andalusia plays a significant role in the history of Spanish-language literature, although not all of the important literature associated with Andalusia was written in Spanish. Before 1492, there was the literature written in

Ibn al-Yayyab, and Ibn Zamrak^[181] or Andalusian Hebrew poets as Solomon ibn Gabirol. Ibn Quzman, of the 12th century, crafted poems in the colloquial Andalusian language.^[182]

In 1492 Antonio de Nebrija published his celebrated Gramática de la lengua castellana ("Grammar of the Castilian language"), the first such work for a modern European language. In 1528 Francisco Delicado wrote La lozana andaluza, a novel in the orbit of La Celestina, and in 1599 the Sevillian Mateo Alemán wrote the first part of Guzmán de Alfarache, the first picaresque novel with a known author.

The prominent

Siglo de Oro;^[183]

indeed, the style is often referred to as Góngorismo.

Literary Romanticism in Spain had one of its great centers in Andalusia, with such authors as Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas, José Cadalso and Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer. Costumbrismo andaluz existed in literature as much as in visual art, with notable examples being the Escenas andaluzas of Serafín Estébanez Calderón and the works of Pedro Antonio de Alarcón.

Andalusian authors Ángel Ganivet, Manuel Gómez-Moreno, Manuel and Antonio Machado, and Francisco Villaespesa are all generally counted in the Generation of '98. Also of this generation were the Quintero brothers, dramatists who faithfully captured Andalusian dialects and idiosyncrasies. Also of note, 1956 Nobel Prize-winning poet Juan Ramón Jiménez was a native of Moguer, near Huelva.

A large portion of the avant-garde Generation of '27 who gathered at the Ateneo de Sevilla on the 300th anniversary of Góngora's death were Andalusians: Federico García Lorca, Luis Cernuda, Rafael Alberti, Manuel Altolaguirre, Emilio Prados, and 1977 Nobel laureate Vicente Aleixandre.^[184]

Certain Andalusian fictional characters have become universal archetypes: Prosper Mérimée's gypsy Carmen, P. D. Eastman's Perro, Pierre Beaumarchais's Fígaro, and Tirso de Molina's Don Juan.

As in most regions of Spain, the principal form of popular verse is the romance, although there are also strophes specific to Andalusia, such as the soleá or the soleariya [es; it]. Ballads, lullabies, street vendor's cries, nursery rhymes, and work songs are plentiful.

Among the philosophers native to the region can be counted

Fernán Pérez de Oliva, Sebastián Fox Morcillo, Ángel Ganivet, Francisco Giner de los Ríos and María Zambrano

.

Music of Andalusia

Main article: Music of Andalusia

See also: Music of Spain

José Villegas Cordero

.

The music of Andalusia includes traditional and contemporary music, folk and composed music, and ranges from flamenco to rock. Conversely, certain metric, melodic and harmonic characteristics are considered Andalusian even when written or performed by musicians from elsewhere.

Flamenco, perhaps the most characteristically Andalusian genre of music and dance, originated in the 18th century, but is based in earlier forms from the region. The influence of the traditional music and dance of the

baile flamenco) styles.^[185]

The Andalusian Statute of Autonomy reflects the cultural importance of flamenco in its Articles 37.1.18 and 68:

Guiding principles of public policy: 18th The preservation and enhancement of the cultural, historic and artistic heritage of Andalusia, especially flamenco.[186]

Also within the Autonomous Community (of Andalucia) is the exclusive competence in knowledge, conservation, research, training, promotion and dissemination of flamenco as a unique element of the Andalusian cultural heritage.^[187]

José María Ventura Casas (right) is regarded as the father of the modern Catalan sardana

.

Fundamental in the history of Andalusian music are the composers

cante hondo, such as Rocío Jurado, Lola Flores (La Faraona, "the pharaoh"), Juanito Valderrama and the revolutionary Camarón de la Isla.^[189]

Prominent Andalusian rock groups include

Eurovision in 2002, and David Bisbal.^[191][192]

On November 16, 2023, Seville will host the 24th Annual Latin Grammy Awards at the FIBES Conference and Exhibition Centre, making Seville the first city outside of the United States to host the Latin Grammy Awards.^[193]

Film

The portrayal of Andalusia in film is often reduced to archetypes: flamenco, bullfighting, Catholic pageantry, brigands, the property-rich and cash-poor señorito andaluz and emigrants. These images particularly predominated from the 1920s through the 1960s, and helped to consolidate a clichéd image of the region. In a very different vein, the province of Almería was the filming location for many Westerns, especially (but by no means exclusively) the Italian-directed Spaghetti Westerns. During the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, this was the extent of the film industry in Andalusia.

Nonetheless, Andalusian film has roots as far back as

Solas), and Antonio Banderas (Summer Rain

).

Counting together feature films, documentaries, television programs, music videos etc., Andalusia has boomed from 37 projects shooting in 1999 to 1,054 in 2007, with the figure for 2007 including 19 feature films.[194] Although feature films are the most prestigious, commercials and television are currently more economically important to the region.

The

African Film Festival of Tarifa

.

Culture

Customs and society

Each sub-region in Andalusia has its own unique customs that represent a fusion of Catholicism and local folklore. Cities like Almería have been influenced historically by both Granada and Murcia in the use of traditional head coverings. The sombrero de Labrador, a worker's hat made of black velvet, is a signature style of the region.

In Cádiz, traditional costumes with rural origins are worn at bullfights and at parties on the large estates. The tablao flamenco dance and the accompanying

Virgin and Child.^[195][196] In recent times the Romería has attracted roughly a million pilgrims each year.^[197]

In

Passion, and images of the Virgin Mary. Sevillanas, a type of old folk music sung and written in Seville and still very popular, are performed in fairs and festivals, along with an associated dance for the music, the Baile por sevillanas. All the different regions of Andalusia have developed their own distinctive customs, but all share a connectedness to Catholicism as developed during baroque Spain society.^[198]

Andalusian Spanish

Main article: Andalusian Spanish

Seseo. Still other areas retain the distinction found elsewhere in Spain. Note that the city of Cádiz

has seseo.

Andalusian Spanish is one of the most widely spoken forms of Spanish in Spain, and because of emigration patterns was very influential on American Spanish. Rather than a single dialect, it is really a range of dialects sharing some common features; among these is the retention of more

Arabic words than elsewhere in Spain,^[199][200] as well as some phonological differences compared with Standard Spanish. The isoglosses that mark the borders of Andalusian Spanish overlap to form a network of divergent boundaries, so there is no clear border for the linguistic region.^[201] A fringe movement promoting an Andalusian language independent from Spanish exists.^[202]

Religion

The territory now known as Andalusia fell within the sphere of influence of ancient Mediterranean

coat of arms of Andalusia

shows Hercules between two lions, with two pillars behind these figures.

Virgin Mary; Andalusia is sometimes known as la tierra de María Santísima ("the land of Most Holy Mary").^[205] Also characteristic are the processions during Holy Week, in which thousands of penitents (known as nazarenos) sing saetas. Andalusia is the site of such pilgrim destinations as the Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Cabeza [ca; de; es; it] in Andújar and the Hermitage of El Rocío in Almonte

.

Bullfighting

While some trace the lineage of the Spanish Fighting Bull back to Roman times, today's fighting bulls in the Iberian peninsula and in the former Spanish Empire trace back to Andalusia in the 15th and 16th centuries.^[206] Andalusia remains a center of bull-rearing and bullfighting: its 227 fincas de ganado where fighting bulls are raised cover 146,917 hectares (363,040 acres).^[206] In the year 2000, Andalusia's roughly 100 bullrings hosted 1,139 corridas.^[206]

The oldest bullring still in use in Spain is the neoclassical Plaza de toros in Ronda, built in 1784. The Andalusian Autonomous Government sponsors the Rutas de Andalucía taurina, a touristic route through the region centered on bullfighting.

Festivals

Cruz de mayo of the confraternity Hermandad de la Paz y Esperanza ("Brotherhood of Peace and Hope"), Cuesta del Bailío

, Córdoba.

The Andalusian festivals provide a showcase for popular arts and traditional costume. Among the most famous of these are the Seville Fair or Feria de Abril in Seville, now echoed by smaller fairs in Madrid and Barcelona, both of which have many Andalusian immigrants; the Feria de Agosto in Málaga; the Feria de Jerez or Feria del Caballo in Jerez; the Feast of Corpus Christi [es] in Granada; the Feria de Nuestra Señora de la Salud [es] in Córdoba; the Columbian Festivals (Fiestas Colombinas) in Huelva; the Feria de la Virgen del Mar in Almería; and the Feria de San Lucas [es] in Jaén, among many others.

Festivals of a religious nature are a deep Andalusian tradition and are met with great popular fervor. There are numerous major festivals during Holy Week. An annual pilgrimage brings a million visitors to the Hermitage of El Rocío in Almonte (population 16,914 in 2008); similarly large crowds visit the Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Cabeza in Andújar every April.

Other important festivals are the

Cruz de mayo

in Granada and Córdoba; in Córdoba this is combined with a competition for among the patios (courtyards) of the city.

Andalusia hosts an annual festival for the dance of flamenco in the summer-time.

Cuisine

Main articles: Andalusian cuisine and List of Andalusian food and drink products with protected status

The Andalusian diet varies, especially between the coast and the interior, but in general is a Mediterranean diet based on olive oil, cereals, legumes, vegetables, fish, dried fruits and nuts, and meat; there is also a great tradition of drinking wine.^[207]

Aphia minuta), a once-popular small fish from Málaga, is now banned because the techniques used to catch them trap too many immature fish of other species.^[208]

The mountainous regions of the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada produce cured

jamón serrano and jamón ibérico. These come from two different types of pig, (jamón serrano from white pigs, the more expensive jamón ibérico from the Black Iberian pig). There are several denominaciones de origen, each with its own specifications including in just which microclimate region ham of a particular denomination must be cured. Plato alpujarreño

is another mountain specialty, a dish combining ham, sausage, sometimes other pork, egg, potatoes, and olive oil.

mantecados, polvorones, pestiños, alfajores, yemas de San Leandro [es; ru], as well as churros or tejeringos, meringue cookies (merengadas), and amarguillos [es

].

Cereal-based dishes include migas de harina in eastern Andalusia (a similar dish to couscous rather than the fried breadcrumb based migas elsewhere in Spain) and a sweeter, more aromatic porridge called poleá in western Andalusia. Vegetables form the basis of such dishes as alboronía (similar to ratatouille) and the chopped salad known as pipirrana or piriñaca. Hot and cold soups based in olive oil, garlic, bread, tomato and peppers include gazpacho, salmorejo, porra antequerana, ajo caliente, sopa campera, or—using almonds instead of tomato—ajoblanco.^[209]

Wine has a privileged place at the Andalusian table. Andalusian wines are known worldwide, especially

Tintilla de Rota, Pajarete, Moscatel de Chipiona and Mosto de Umbrete

.

Andalusia also produces D.O.

D.O. Brandy de Jerez.^[212]

Other traditions

Malaga

.

The traditional dress of 18th-century Andalusia was strongly influenced by

Romani ("Gypsy") women.^{[citation needed}

]

The

sombrero cordobés, sombrero calañés, sombrero de catite and the pavero [es], as well as the traje corto and traje de flamenca

.

Andalusia has a great artisan tradition in

basketry in wicker, many of these traditions a heritage of the long period of Muslim rule.^[213]

Andalusia is also known for its dogs, particularly the

Andalusian Hound

, which was originally bred in the region. Dogs, not just andalusian hounds, are very popular in the region.

Andalusian equestrianism, institutionalized in the Royal Andalusian School of Equestrian Art is known well beyond the borders of Spain. The Andalusian horse is strongly built, compact yet elegant, distinguished in the area of dressage and show jumping, and is also an excellent horse for driving. They are known for their elegant "dancing" gait.^[214]

• 
  Tiles from the Alhambra.
• 
  Andalusian, in "Majo" dress
• 
  Sombreros cordobeses.
• 
  Sombrero de catite.

Sports

Team sports

La Rosaleda is the stadium of Málaga CF, one of four Andalusian clubs in Segunda División

.

In Andalusia, as throughout Spain,

Rio Tinto in the province of Huelva, the sport soon became popular with the local population. As Spain's oldest existing football club, Recreativo de Huelva, founded 1889, is known as El Decano ("the Dean").^[215]

For the 2023–24 season, five Andalusian clubs compete in Spain's First Division La Liga: Cádiz CF, Real Betis, Sevilla FC, Granada CF and UD Almería. Betis won La Liga in 1934–35 and Sevilla in the 1945–46 season.^[216][217] The other Andalusian teams, Málaga CF, Recreativo de Huelva and Cordoba CF play in the Primera Federación, whilst Marbella FC, participates in the Segunda Federación, and Real Jaén participates in the Tercera División.

The

Andalusia autonomous football team is not in any league, and plays only friendly matches

. In recent years, they have played mostly during the Christmas break of the football leagues. They play mostly against national teams from other countries, but would not be eligible for international league play, where Spain is represented by a single national team.

In recent decades,

CB Sevilla (Banca Cívica) and CB Granada competing at the top level in the Liga ACB.^[218]

Unlike basketball,

handball has never really taken off in Andalusia. There is one Andalusian team in the Liga Asobal, Spain's premier handball league: BM Puente Genil, playing in the province of Córdoba

.

Andalusia's strongest showing in sports has been in table tennis. There are two professional teams: Cajasur Priego TM and Caja Granada TM, the latter being Spain's leading table tennis team, with more than 20 league championships in nearly consecutive years and 14 consecutive Copas del Rey, dominating the Liga ENEBÉ. Cajasur is also one of the league's leading teams.^{[219][citation needed]}

Olympics

220 Andalusian athletes have competed in a total of 16 summer or winter Olympic Games. The first was Leopoldo Sainz de la Maza, part of the silver medal-winning polo team at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium.^[220]

In all, Andalusians have won six gold medals, 11 silver, and two bronze. Winners of multiple medals include the Córdoban boxer Rafael Lozano (bronze in the 1996 Summer Olympics at Atlanta, Georgia, US, and silver in the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia); sailor Theresa Zabell, Malagueña by adoption (gold medals at Barcelona in 1992 and Atlanta in 1996). Other notable winners have been Granadan tennis player Manuel Orantes (silver in the men's singles of the demonstration tournament in Mexico City in 1968), Jerezano riders Ignacio Rambla and Rafael Soto (silver in dressage in Athens in 2004) and the racewalker Paquillo Fernández from Guadix (silver in Athens in 2004).

The largest number of Olympic appearances were by the Malagueña swimmer

María José Rienda (four), the Sevillian rider Luis Astolfi (four), and the Sevillian rower Fernando Climent (four, including a silver at Los Angeles, California, US, in 1984.^[221]

Seville has been a pre-candidate to host the Summer Olympics in two occasions, 2004 and 2008, and Granada has been a pre-candidate to host the winter Olympics; neither has ever succeeded in its candidature. The ski resort of Sierra Nevada, near Granada, has however hosted the 1996 Alpine World Ski Championships, and Granada hosted the 2015 Winter Universiade.

Other sports

Other sporting events in Andalusia include

Linares chess tournament. The Circuito de Jerez, located near Jerez de la Frontera, hosts the Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix

.

Twinning and covenants

Andalusia has had a

sister region relationship with Buenos Aires (Argentina), since 2001;^[222] and with Córdoba (Argentina). Also Andalusia has a collaboration agreement with Guerrero (Mexico

).

See also

• Andalusian people
• Andalusian nationalism
• Azulejo
• List of Andalusians
• List of the oldest mosques
• Roman Bética Route
• San Juan De Los Terreros
• White Towns of Andalusia
• Yeseria

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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Andalucía.

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Andalusia.

• "Andalusia" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. II (9th ed.). 1878. pp. 10–11.
• Official site – Junta de Andalucia
• Andalucia Tourism Site
• Andalucia page at the guardian

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