Andean civilizations
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The Andean civilizations were South American
Despite the severe environmental challenges of high mountains and hyper-arid desert, the Andean civilizations domesticated a wide variety of crops, some of which, such as
Less than a century prior to the arrival of the
History
After the first humans — who were then arranged into
This was followed by the Ceramic Period. Various complex societies developed at this time, such as
In later periods, much of the Andean region was conquered by the indigenous
In the 16th century, Spanish colonisers from Europe arrived in the Andes, eventually subjugating the indigenous kingdoms and incorporating the Andean region into the Spanish Empire.
Uniqueness
The civilization of the Andes was one of six in the world deemed by scholars to be "pristine", that is indigenous and not derived from other civilizations.[4] Due to its isolation from other civilizations, the indigenous people of the Andes had to come up with their own, often unique solutions to environmental and societal challenges.[5]
Andean civilization lacked several characteristics distinguishing it from the pristine civilizations in the
Andean civilizations also lacked wheeled vehicles and draft animals. People on land traveled only by foot and the transport of goods was only by humans or
Moreover, Andean civilizations faced severe environmental challenges. The earliest civilizations were on the hyper-arid desert coast of Peru. Agriculture was possible only with irrigation in valleys crossed by rivers coming from the high Andes, plus in a few fog oases called lomas. In the Andes, agriculture was limited by thin soils, cold climate, low or seasonal precipitation, and a scarcity of flat land. Freezing temperatures may occur in every month of the year at altitudes of more than 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the homeland of many of the highland Andean civilizations.[9]
Finally, the Andean civilizations lacked money. Copper axe-monies (also called "naipes")[10] and Spondylus shells[11] functioned as mediums of exchange in some areas, especially coastal Ecuador, but most of the Andes area had economies organized on reciprocity and redistribution rather than money and markets. These characteristics were especially notable during the Inca Empire but originated in much earlier times.[12]
Agriculture
Agriculture in South America may have begun in coastal Ecuador with the domestication of
Some scholars believe that the earliest civilizations on the Peruvian coast initially relied more upon maritime resources than agriculture during the formative period of their societies.
The challenges of the environment required sophisticated agricultural technology.
Archaeological cultures
Caral
The
Valdivia
The
Chavín
The
Nazca
The
Moche
The
Chachapoyas
The Chachapoyas, or the 'Cloud People', were an Andean civilization living in cloud forests of the Amazonas region of present-day northern Peru. The Incas conquered the Chachapoyas shortly before the arrival of the Spanish in Peru. The first firm evidence of their existence dates back to around 700 CE, although it is possible that they built a settlement called Gran Pajáten where some ceramics have been dated to 200 BCE. The largest Chacapoyan site discovered so far is
Wari
The
Tiwanaku
Historical cultures
Chimú
The
This was just fifty years before the arrival of the Spanish in the region. Consequently, Spanish chroniclers were able to record accounts of Chimú culture from individuals who had lived before the Inca conquest. Similarly,
Aymara kingdoms
The Aymara kingdoms were a group of lordships located in the Altiplano. The kingdoms were established around 1151 after the collapse of the Tiwanaku Empire until they were absorbed into the Inca Empire in 1477.
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Incan Empire[32] (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.[33] The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco. The Inca civilization arose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century, and the last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. From 1438 to 1533 CE, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, including Peru, southwest Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, northern Chile, and a small part of southwest Colombia into a state comparable to the historical empires of the Old World.
Diaguita
The Diaguita culture formed in 1000 CE after emerging from the Las Ánimas culture. The Calchaquí tribe fought against expansion by both the Inca Empire and the Spanish Empire until they surrendered to Spanish rule after their defeat in the Calchaquí Wars in 1665.
Muisca
The
Timoto-Cuica
Timoto–Cuica people was composed primarily of two tribes, the Timotes and the Cuicas, that inhabited in the
They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops. Regional crops included potatoes and
Gallery
-
Cover of Huánuco Pampa
-
Lithic decorations in the Gran Pajatén
-
Facade of the main temple of Cerro Sechín
-
Mausoleum in Huilcahuaín
See also
- History of Argentina
- History of Bolivia
- History of Chile
- History of Colombia
- History of Ecuador
- History of South America
- History of Peru
- Periodization of Pre-Columbian Peru
- Amazonas before the Inca Empire
- Guaman Poma
- Pambokancha(religious site)
- Population history of American indigenous peoples
- Tumi
- Quechua people
- Kogi people
- Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
References
- ^ "Pre-Columbian civilizations - Andean, Inca, Moche | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-07-31.
- S2CID 10172918.
- ISBN 978-0-500-28277-9.
- ^ Upton, Gary and von Hagen, Adriana (2015), Encyclopedia of the Incas, New York: Rowand & Littlefield, p. 2. Some scholars cite 6 or 7 pristine civilizations.
- ^ a b McEwan 2006, p. 5.
- ISBN 978-0-393-33301-5.
- ^ Hirst, K. Kris. "Quipu – South America's Ancient Undeciphered Writing System". ThoughtCo. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
- ^ "Llamas as Pack Animals". Buckhorn Llama Co. Archived from the original on August 18, 2017. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
- ^ Guillet, David and others (1987), "Terracing and Irrigation in the Peruvian Highlands," Current Anthropology, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 409–410. Downloaded from JSTOR.
- ^ Smith, M.E. (1993). "Axe-Monies and Their Relatives" by Dorothy Hosler; Heather Lechtman; Olaf Holm. (Review). Ethnohistory, 40(1), pp. 148–149
- ^ Carter, Benjamin. "Spondylus in South American Prehistory" in Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches. Ed. Fotis Ifantidis and Marianna Nikolaidou. BAR International Series 2216. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2011: 63–89.
- ^ Fagan, Brian M. (1996), The Oxford Guide to Archaeology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 343
- ^ "Domestication History of the Squash Plant", https://www.thoughtco.com/domestication-history-of-the-squash-plant-172698, accessed 19 Jun 2018
- ^ Moseley, Michael. "The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization: An Evolving Hypothesis". The Hall of Ma'at. Archived from the original on 2015-08-18. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
- ISBN 978-0-8465-4800-3.
- ^ Stevens, William K., "Rediscovering the Lost Crops of the Inca," The New York Times, October 31, 1989
- ^ Piperno, Dolores r. (2011), "The Origins of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Patterns, Process, and new Developments," Current Anthropology, Vol. 52, No. 54, pp. S457–S459 Downloaded from JSTOR.
- ISBN 978-0-631-17677-0.
- ^ Diamond, Jared (1999), Guns. Germs, and Steel: The Fate of Human Societies, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., pp. 83–113
- ^ D'Altroy 2003, pp. 27–35.
- ^ McEwan 2006, pp. 23–27, 83–85.
- ^ The name is disputed. English-language sources use Norte Chico (Spanish: "Little North") per Haas et al. (2004). Caral or Caral-Supe are more likely to be found in Spanish language sources per Shady. This article follows usage in recent English-language sources and employs Norte Chico, but the title is not definitive. Peruvian Norte Chico should not be confused with the Chilean region of the same name.
- ^ "Sacred City of Caral-Supe". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 15 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-09.
- ^ "Chavín de Huántar, Peru – A Pre-Columbian World Heritage Treasure". Global Heritage Fund. Archived from the original on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-395-87274-1.
- ^ Bawden, G. 2004. "The Art of Moche Politics", in Andean Archaeology. (ed. H. Silverman). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
- ISBN 978-1-55786-183-2.
- ISBN 978-0-387-95310-6.
- ISBN 978-0-470-18986-3. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Profile: Fabricio R. Santos – The Genographic project". Genographic Project. National Geographic. Archived from the original on 2011-07-05. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
- ^ Kubler, George. (1962). The Art and Architecture of Ancient America, Ringwoods: Penguin Books London Ltd., pp. 247–274
- ^ Also Inka Empire; see Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift for more information regarding this spelling difference
- ^ Terence D'Altroy, The Incas, pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b Mahoney 89
- ^ "Venezuela." Archived 2011-09-04 at the Wayback Machine Friends of the Pre-Columbian Art Museum. (retrieved 9 July 2011)
Further reading
- Besom, Thomas. Of Summits and Sacrifice: An Ethnohistoric Study of Inka Religious Practices (University of Texas Press; 2010) 230 pages; combines archaeological and textual data in study of practices of human sacrifice and mountain worship. Burger, Richard L. Machu Picchu; Unveling the Mystery of the Inca. Yale University Press, 2004.
- Cobo, F.B. Inca Religion and Customs. 1609
- Conrad, Geoffery. Religion and Empire; The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism. Cambridge University Press, 1984.
- Curl, John. Ancient American Poets: The Sacred Hymns of Pachacutec. Tempe AZ: Bilingual Press, 2005. ISBN 1-931010-21-8 Inca Poetry
- Dobyns, Henry F. and Paul L. Peru: A Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.
- Eeckhout, Peter. Ancient Peru's Power Elite. National Geographic Research and Exploration. March 2005. pp. 52–56.
- Frost, Peter. Lost Outpost of the Inca. National Geographic. February 2004. pp. 66–69.
- Hyslop, John. Inka settlement planning. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990. ISBN 0-292-73852-8
- MacQuarrie, Kim. The Last Days of the Incas. Simon & Schuster, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7432-6049-7.
- Malpass, Michael A. Daily life in the Inca Empire. Greenwood Publishing Corp., 1996
- Malpass, Michael A. and Sonia Alconini, eds. Distant Provinces in the Inka Empire: Toward a Deeper Understanding of Inka Imperialism (University of Iowa Press; 2010) 355 pages; Research on Inca conquest in the central and northern coasts of Peru, in Ecuador, and in other regions far from Cuzco.
- Mancall, Peter C. (ed.). Travel Narratives from the Age of Discovery. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
- ISBN 978-1400040063.
- Prescott, William H. Conquest of Peru. The Book League of America. New York: 1976.
- Prescott, William H. History of the Conquest of Mexico & History of the Conquest of Peru. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2000.
- Pugh, Helen 'Intrepid Dudettes of the Inca Empire' (2020) ISBN 978-1005592318
- Reinhard, Johan The Ice Maiden: Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 2005.
- Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, Maria. History of the Inca Realm. Cambridge University Press, 1999.
- Sullivan, L.E. Native Religions and Cultures of Central and South America: Anthropology of the Sacred. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2002.
- Steele, P.R. Handbook of Inca mythology. Santa Barbara ABC-CLIO, 2004.
- ISBN 978-0-8061-6150-1. Chapter 3 and ss.