Andes

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Coordinates: 32°S 70°W / 32°S 70°W / -32; -70
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the mountain range in South America. For other uses, see Andes (disambiguation).

Andes Mountains
Quechua)
Geography
Countries
Range coordinates32°S 70°W / 32°S 70°W / -32; -70
"Cono de Arita" in the Puna de Atacama, Salta (Argentina)
Aconcagua

The Andes (

Quechua: Anti) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is 8,900 km (5,530 mi) long, 200 to 700 km (124 to 435 mi) wide (widest between 18°S and 20°S latitude), and has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,123 ft). The Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina
.

Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, separated by intermediate depressions. The Andes are the location of several high plateaus—some of which host major cities such as Quito, Bogotá, Cali, Arequipa, Medellín, Bucaramanga, Sucre, Mérida, El Alto and La Paz. The Altiplano Plateau is the world's second-highest after the Tibetan Plateau. These ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate: the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes.

The Andes Mountains are the highest mountain range outside

peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorian Andes is farther from the Earth's center than any other location on the Earth's surface, due to the equatorial bulge resulting from the Earth's rotation. The world's highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado
on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m (22,615 ft).

The Andes are also part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges (cordillera) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of the Americas and Antarctica.

Etymology

The etymology of the word Andes has been debated. The majority consensus is that it derives from the

Quechua word anti 'east'[1] as in Antisuyu (Quechua for 'east region'),[1] one of the four regions of the Inca Empire
.

The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel 'rope'[2] and is used as a descriptive name for several contiguous sections of the Andes, as well as the entire Andean range, and the combined mountain chain along the western part of the North and South American continents.

Geography

Aerial view of Valle Carbajal in the Tierra del Fuego. The Andes range is about 200 km (124 mi) wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres (398 mi) wide.

The Andes can be divided into three sections:

The Southern Andes
in Argentina and Chile, south of Llullaillaco.
The Central Andes
in Peru and Bolivia.
The Northern Andes
in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. In the northern part of the Andes, the separate Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often treated as part of the Northern Andes.[3]

The Leeward Antilles islands Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, were formerly thought to represent the submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the South American and Caribbean plates.[4]

Geology

Geology of the Andes
Orogenies
Fold-thrust belts
Batholiths
Subducted structures
Faults
Andean Volcanic Belt
Pampean flat-slab
Terranes

The Andes are a

Peru-Chile trench
can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range.

The Andean orogen has a series of bends or

crustal shortening.[6] The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the "Arica Elbow".[9] Further south lies the Maipo Orocline a more subtle Orocline between 30° S and 38°S with a seaward-concave break in trend at 33° S.[10] Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian Orocline.[11]

Orogeny

Main article: Andean orogeny

The western rim of the

microcontinents collided and amalgamated with the ancient cratons of eastern South America, by then the South American part of Gondwana
.

The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic when Pangaea began the break up that resulted in developing several rifts. The development continued through the Jurassic Period. It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, as different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion.

Across the 1,000 km (620 mi) wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.

The far east regions of the Andes experience a series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the

Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of the earth being overridden by the Andes.[12]
The
foreland basin in the Cenozoic.[14]

Seismic Activity

Tectonic forces above the

volcanic eruptions to this day. Many high magnitude earthquakes have been recorded in the region, such as the 2010 Maule earthquake (M8.8) and 2015 Illapel earthquake
(M8.2).

The amount, magnitude, and type of seismic activity varies greatly along the subduction zone. These differences are due to a wide range of factors, including friction between the plates, angle of subduction, buoyancy of the subducting plate, rate of subduction, and hydration value of the mantle material. The highest rate of seismic activity is observed in the central portion of the boundary, between 33°S and 35°S. In this area, the angle of subduction is very low, meaning the subducting plate is nearly horizontal. Studies of mantle hydration across the subduction zone have shown a correlation between increased material hydration and lower magnitude, more frequent seismic activity. Zones exhibiting dehydration instead are thought to have a higher potential for larger, high magnitude earthquakes in the future. [15]

In the extreme south, a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate.

Volcanism

Main article: Andean Volcanic Belt
Rift Valley near Quilotoa, Ecuador
ISS
shows the high plains of the Andes Mountains in the foreground, with a line of young volcanoes facing the much lower Atacama Desert

The Andes range has many active volcanoes distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism is a result of the

calc-alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems and extensional zones, transpressional faults, subduction of mid-ocean ridges and seamount chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and magma
ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations.

Ore deposits and evaporates

The Andes Mountains host large

saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates. Yet another result of the dry climate are the salars of Atacama and Uyuni, the former being the largest source of lithium today and the latter the world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and Neogene plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian tin belt as well as the famous, now mostly depleted, deposits of Cerro Rico de Potosí
.

History

Main article: History of Andean South America

The Andes Mountains, initially inhabited by

hunter-gatherers, experienced the development of agriculture and the rise of politically centralised civilizations, which culminated in the establishment of the century-long Inca Empire. This all changed in the 16th century, when the Spanish conquistadors colonized the mountains in advance of the mining
economy.

In the tide of

Spanish colonial
rule. Since then, many former Spanish territories have become five independent Andean states.

Climate and hydrology

See also: Tropical Andes, Dry Andes, and Wet Andes
Central Andes
Bolivian Andes

The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. Temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central section is dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just kilometres away from the snow-covered peak of Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is at between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,764 and 15,748 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800–5,200 m (15,748–17,060 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S before descending to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32°S, 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40°S, 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50°S, and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level.[17]

The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be divided into two climatic and glaciological zones: the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. Since the Dry Andes extend from the latitudes of the Atacama Desert to the area of the Maule River, precipitation is more sporadic and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving a whole glacier in the ablation area or in the accumulation area.

In the high Andes of

solar radiation.[18] In these regions glaciers occur typically at higher altitudes than rock glaciers.[19] The lowest active rock glacier occur at 900 m a.s.l. in Aconcagua.[19]

Though precipitation increases with height, there are semiarid conditions in the nearly 7,000-metre (22,966 ft) highest mountains of the Andes. This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32–34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, for example, the Plomo Glacier and the Horcones Glaciers, do not even reach 10 km (6.2 mi) in length and have only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times, however, c. 20,000 years ago, the glaciers were over ten times longer. On the east side of this section of the Mendozina Andes, they flowed down to 2,060 m (6,759 ft) and on the west side to about 1,220 m (4,003 ft) above sea level.[20][21] The massifs of Cerro Aconcagua (6,961 m (22,838 ft)), Cerro Tupungato (6,550 m (21,490 ft)) and Nevado Juncal (6,110 m (20,046 ft)) are tens of kilometres away from each other and were connected by a joint ice stream network. The Andes' dendritic glacier arms, i.e. components of valley glaciers, were up to 112.5 km (69.9 mi) long, over 1,250 m (4,101 ft) thick and overspanned a vertical distance of 5,150 m (16,896 ft). The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from 4,600 m (15,092 ft) to 3,200 m (10,499 ft) at glacial times.[20][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]

Flora

Laguna de Sonso tropical dry forest in Northern Andes

The Andean region cuts across several

xeric
vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert.

About 30,000 species of

endangered, with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains.[32]

Fauna

national bird
of Peru
Herds of alpacas near Ausangate mountain
Main article: Fauna of the Andes

The Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 1,000 species, of which roughly 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes are the most important region in the world for amphibians.[31] The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptile (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic).[31]

The

diuca-finches.[35]

hillstars, can be seen at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,100 ft), but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests ("cloud forests") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and far northwestern Argentina.[35] These forest-types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened mountain tapir, spectacled bear and yellow-tailed woolly monkey.[33]

Birds of humid Andean forests include

wrens, tapaculos and antpittas.[35]

A number of species such as the

threatened.[35]

Human activity

See also:
Cultural periods of Peru, Inca Empire, Viceroyalty of Peru, and Andean states

The Andes Mountains form a north–south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the

roads
in addition to preexisting installations. Some of these constructions are still in existence today.

Frederic Edwin Church, Heart of the Andes, 1859.

Devastated by European diseases and by

Quechua and Aymara language families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland
surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827.

Cities

In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are

Andean Community of Nations
.

La Paz, Bolivia's seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately 3,650 m (11,975 ft). Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of El Alto, extend up to 4,200 m (13,780 ft).

Other cities in or near the Andes include

Valencia, and Maracay are in the Venezuelan Coastal Range
, which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extremity of South America.

Transportation

Cities and large towns are connected with

four-wheel-drive vehicle.[38]

The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building

railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern civil engineering practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores. Only recently the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west have been connected.[39]
Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft.

However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia. See railroad maps of that region.

There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a period of war between Bolivia and Paraguay, in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay.

For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the

seaports in eastern Argentina and Uruguay
for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978.

Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via

motorized vehicles is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Locally, the relatives of the camel, the llama, and the alpaca continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. Donkeys, mules
, and horses are also useful.

Agriculture

Peruvian farmers sowing maize and beans
See also:
Incan agriculture, and Vertical archipelago

The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed staple crop. Maize was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of chicha, important to Andean native people. Currently, tobacco, cotton and coffee are the main export crops. Coca, despite eradication programmes in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea, and, both controversially and illegally, for the production of cocaine.

Irrigation

Irrigating land in the Peruvian Andes

In unirrigated land, pasture is the most common type of land use. In the rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans and wheat).

Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops which guarantees an early yield in the period of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (up to 3,800 m (12,500 ft)). In addition, it makes cropping in the dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost-resistant vegetable crops like onion and carrot.[40]

Mining

Chilean huasos, 19th century

The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the Spanish conquest of South America. Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals, the mineralizations of the Andes were first mined on a large scale after the Spanish arrival. Potosí in present-day Bolivia and Cerro de Pasco in Peru were among the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. Río de la Plata and Argentina[41] derive their names from the silver of Potosí.

Currently, mining in the Andes of Chile and Peru places these countries as the first and second major producers of copper in the world. Peru also contains the 4th largest goldmine in the world: the Yanacocha. The Bolivian Andes produce principally tin although historically silver mining had a huge impact on the economy of 17th-century Europe.

There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish silver mines in Potosí in the 16th century to the vast current porphyry copper deposits of Chuquicamata and Escondida in Chile and Toquepala in Peru. Other metals including iron, gold, and tin in addition to non-metallic resources are important. The Andes have a vast supply of lithium; Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile have the three largest reserves in the world respectively.[42]

Accion andina´s reforestation plan

Depending on the country, this species goes by different names. In Peru, it's known as queñual, queuña, or queñoa. In Bolivia, as kewiña. In Ecuador, as yagual; and in Argentina, tabaquillo. Regardless of the name, Polylepis is a high Andean genus encompassing up to 45 species of trees and shrubs distributed across the South American Andes, from Venezuela to Patagonia, found even up to 5,000 meters above sea level.[43]

Despite its limited recognition and only 5% of its native population remaining, the queñual, with its twisted trunks, has become the protagonist of an inspiring story to protect water in the region.[43]

In 2000, inspired by ancestral customs in communities of his native Cusco, Peruvian Andes, biologist Constantino Aucca founded Ecoan, an NGO promoting conservation of threatened species and endangered Andean ecosystems. Since then, the organization has reforested 4.5 million plants across 16 protected areas, involving 37 Andean communities in the process.[43]

Aucca's tireless efforts caught the attention of Florent Kaiser, a Franco-German forest engineer with experience in large-scale conservation projects worldwide.[43]

During a visit to Peru in 2018, Aucca invited Kaiser to the Queuña Raymi festival, where Cusco communities engage in queñual reforestation. Witnessing 700 people of all ages participating in this ancestral tradition, Kaiser recognized it as the kind of initiative he had long sought to support.[43]

Their collaboration birthed Global Forest Generation (GFG), a US-based NGO created by Kaiser in 2018 to fund Aucca's reforestation ambitions. Together, they co-founded a new organization: Acción Andina.[43]

Currently operating in Peru, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile, Acción Andina has planted nearly 10 million trees since 2018, restoring over 4,000 hectares of Andean forests and protecting more than 11,000 hectares of native forests.[43]

Peaks

Main article: List of mountains in the Andes

This list contains some of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range. The highest peak is Aconcagua of Argentina (see below).

Argentina

the Americas
See also: List of mountains in Argentina

The border between Argentina and Chile

See also: Argentina–Chile border

Bolivia

Sajama, Bolivia

Border between Bolivia and Chile

Parinacota
, Bolivia/Chile
  • Acotango, 6,052 m (19,856 ft)
  • Michincha
    , 5,305 m (17,405 ft)
  • Iru Phutunqu
    , 5,163 m (16,939 ft)
  • Licancabur, 5,920 m (19,423 ft)
  • Olca, 5,407 m (17,740 ft)
  • Parinacota
    , 6,348 m (20,827 ft)
  • Paruma, 5,420 m (17,782 ft)
  • Pomerape, 6,282 m (20,610 ft)

Chile

View of Cuernos del Paine in Torres del Paine National Park, Chile
Main article: List of mountains in Chile
  • Monte San Valentin
    , 4,058 m (13,314 ft)
  • Cerro Paine Grande
    , 2,884 m (9,462 ft)
  • Cerro Macá, c.2,300 m (7,546 ft)
  • Monte Darwin
    , c.2,500 m (8,202 ft)
  • Volcan Hudson
    , c.1,900 m (6,234 ft)
  • Cerro Castillo Dynevor, c.1,100 m (3,609 ft)
  • Mount Tarn, c.825 m (2,707 ft)
  • Polleras, c.5,993 m (19,662 ft)
  • Acamarachi, c.6,046 m (19,836 ft)

Colombia

Nevado del Huila, Colombia

Ecuador

Chimborazo near Riobamba, Ecuador

Peru

Huandoy, Peru
Alpamayo, Peru

Venezuela

Pico Humboldt at sunset

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Teofilo Laime Ajacopa, Diccionario Bilingüe Iskay simipi yuyayk'ancha, La Paz, 2007 (Quechua–Spanish dictionary)
  2. ^ "Cordillera". etimologias.dechile.net. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
  3. ^ "Mountains, biodiversity and conservation". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
  4. doi:10.1029/2007JB005507. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 5 June 2010. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
  5. S2CID 4354886
    .
  6. ^
    doi:10.1029/jb093ib04p03211
  7. ^
    doi:10.1016/s0895-9811(99)00015-2
  8. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<806:trotle>2.0.co;2
  9. doi:10.1016/s0040-1951(98)00058-4
    .
  10. ^ Arriagada, César; Ferrando, Rodolfo; Córdova, Loreto; Morata, Diego; Roperch, Pierrick (2013), "The Maipo Orocline: A first scale structural feature in the Miocene to Recent geodynamic evolution in the central Chilean Andes" (PDF), Andean Geology, 40 (3): 419–437
  11. ISBN 978-1-86239-219-9
    .
  12. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2008.06.009
    .
  13. S2CID 128814617. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 December 2015. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
    )
  14. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1991)103<0098:tfbatf>2.3.co;2
    .
  15. ISSN 2662-4435
    .
  16. S2CID 201291787
    .
  17. ^ "Climate of the Andes". Archived from the original on 14 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  18. ^ Jan-Christoph Otto, Joachim Götz, Markus Keuschnig, Ingo Hartmeyer, Dario Trombotto, and Lothar Schrott (2010). Geomorphological and geophysical investigation of a complex rock glacier system—Morenas Coloradas valley (Cordon del Plata, Mendoza, Argentina)
  19. ^ a b Corte, Arturo E. (1976). "Rock glaciers". Biuletyn Peryglacjalny. 26: 175–197.
  20. ^ a b Kuhle, M. (2011): The High-Glacial (Last Glacial Maximum) Glacier Cover of the Aconcagua Group and Adjacent Massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America) with a Closer Look at Further Empirical Evidence. Development in Quaternary Science, Vol. 15 (Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, A Closer Look, Eds: Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.; Hughes, P.D.), 735–738. (Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam).
  21. ^ Brüggen, J. (1929): Zur Glazialgeologie der chilenischen Anden. Geol. Rundsch. 20, 1–35, Berlin.
  22. ^ Kuhle, M. (1984): Spuren hocheiszeitlicher Gletscherbedeckung in der Aconcagua-Gruppe (32–33° S). In: Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie Teil 1 11/12, Verhandlungsblatt des Südamerika-Symposiums 1984 in Bamberg: 1635–1646.
  23. ^ Kuhle, M. (1986): Die Vergletscherung Tibets und die Entstehung von Eiszeiten. In: Spektrum der Wissenschaft 9/86: 42–54.
  24. ^ Kuhle, M. (1987): Subtropical Mountain- and Highland-Glaciation as Ice Age Triggers and the Waning of the Glacial Periods in the Pleistocene. In: GeoJournal 14 (4); Kluwer, Dordrecht/ Boston/ London: 393–421.
  25. ^ Kuhle, M. (1988): Subtropical Mountain- and Highland-Glaciation as Ice Age Triggers and the Waning of the Glacial Periods in the Pleistocene. In: Chinese Translation Bulletin of Glaciology and Geocryology 5 (4): 1–17 (in Chinese language).
  26. ^ Kuhle, M. (1989): Ice-Marginal Ramps: An Indicator of Semiarid Piedmont Glaciations. In: GeoJournal 18; Kluwer, Dordrecht/ Boston/ London: 223–238.
  27. ^ Kuhle, M. (1990): Ice Marginal Ramps and Alluvial Fans in Semi-Arid Mountains: Convergence and Difference. In: Rachocki, A.H., Church, M. (eds.): Alluvial fans: A field approach. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chester-New York-Brisbane-Toronto-Singapore: 55–68.
  28. ^ Kuhle, M. (1990): The Probability of Proof in Geomorphology—an Example of the Application of Information Theory to a New Kind of Glacigenic Morphological Type, the Ice-marginal Ramp (Bortensander). In: GeoJournal 21 (3); Kluwer, Dordrecht/ Boston/ London: 195–222.
  29. ^ Kuhle, M. (2004): The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) glacier cover of the Aconcagua group and adjacent massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America). In: Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P.L. (Eds.), Quaternary Glaciation— Extent and Chronology. Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica. Development in Quaternary Science, vol. 2c. Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, pp. 75–81.
  30. ^ "Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forest Ecoregions". wwf.panda.org. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
  31. ^ a b c Tropical Andes Archived 21 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine – biodiversityhotspots.org
  32. ^ "Pants of the Andies". Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  33. ^
    ISBN 978-0-226-19542-1
  34. ^
    ISBN 978-0-226-70682-5
  35. ^
    ISBN 978-87-88757-16-3
  36. ISBN 978-84-96553-41-5
  37. ^ D'Altroy, Terence N. The Incas. Blackwell Publishing, 2003
  38. ^ "Andes travel map". Archived from the original on 24 September 2010. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
  39. ^ "Jujuy apuesta a captar las cargas de Brasil en tránsito hacia Chile by Emiliano Galli". La Nación. La Nación newspaper. 7 August 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
  40. ^ W. van Immerzeel, 1989. Irrigation and erosion/flood control at high altitudes in the Andes. Published in Annual Report 1989, pp. 8–24, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands. On line: [1]
  41. ^ "Information on Argentina". Argentine Embassy London.
  42. ^ "Lithium: What Role Does Tesla Play In The Demand For This Precious Metal? - Commodity.com". commodity.com. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  43. ^ a b c d e f g Ruiz, Iván Antezana Q. , Flor (11 January 2024). "Más de 10 millones de árboles nuevos: el premiado plan que reforesta los Andes". El País América (in Spanish). Retrieved 12 February 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

References

Bibliography

External links
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