Andronovo culture
Seima-Turbino phenomenon | |
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The Andronovo culture
Most researchers associate the Andronovo horizon with early Indo-Iranian languages, though it may have overlapped the early Uralic-speaking area at its northern fringe and Yeniseian-speaking area to its eastern fringe.[13][14][15] Allentoft et al. (2015) concluded from their genetic studies that the Andronovo culture and the preceding Sintashta culture should be partially derived from the Corded Ware culture, given the higher proportion of ancestry matching the earlier farmers of Europe, similar to the admixture found in the genomes of the Corded Ware population.[16]
Discovery
The name derives from the village of Andronovo in the
Dating and subcultures
The culture of Sarazm (4th–3rd millennium BC) precedes the arrival of the Andronovo steppe culture in South Central Asia in the 2nd millennium BC.[18][19][20]
Currently only two sub-cultures are considered as part of Andronovo culture:[2]
- Alakul (2000–1700 BC)Jaxartes (today Syr Darya), Kyzylkum Desert
- Fëdorovo (2000–1450 BC)[21][3] in southern Siberia (earliest evidence of cremation and fire cult[22])
Other authors identified previously the following sub-cultures also as part of Andronovo:
- Eastern Fedorovo (1850–1350 BC)[23][24] in Tian Shan mountains (Northwestern Xinjiang, China), southeastern Kazakhstan, eastern Kyrgyzstan
- Alekseyevka-Sargary (1450–1150 BC).
Some authors have challenged the chronology and model of eastward spread due to increasing evidence for the earlier presence of these cultural features in parts of east Central Asia.[26]
Geographic extent
The geographical extent of the culture is vast and difficult to delineate exactly. On its western fringes, it overlaps with the approximately contemporaneous, but distinct,
In the initial Sintashta-
In southern Siberia and Kazakhstan, the Andronovo culture was succeeded by the
Characteristics
The Andronovo culture comprised both highly mobile communities and settled villages, with a notable concentration of settlements in its Central Asian regions. Fortifications include ditches, earthen banks as well as timber palisades, of which an estimated twenty have been discovered. Andronovo villages typically contain around two to twenty houses, but settlements containing as much as a hundred houses have been discovered. Andronovo houses were generally constructed from
Livestock, horse, and agriculture
Andronovo livestock included
Pottery
One of the characteristics of Andronovo culture is its pottery, especially in campsites located in Central Asia, some of them very close to settlements of Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex in the south. This pottery is called Incised Coarse Ware (ICW), which is handmade and grey to brown in color, as well as incised with geometrical decoration,[35] spread over much of Eurasian region, from Southern Urals to Kashgar, a pottery made by late Bronze Age nomads.[36]
Metallurgy
The Andronovo culture is notable for regional advances in metallurgy.[27] They mined deposits of copper ore in the Altai Mountains from around the 14th century BC.[37] Bronze objects were numerous, and workshops existed for working copper.[37]
Warfare
"It is likely that militarized elite, whose power was based on the physical control of fellow tribesmen and neighbors with the help of riding and fighting skills, was buried in the Novoilinovsky-2 burial ground. The rider has a significant advantage over the infantryman. There may be another explanation: These elite fulfilled the function of mediating conflicts within the collective, and therefore had power and high social status. Metaphorically, this kind of elite can be called Sheriffs of the Bronze Age" said Igor Chechushkov.[38]
Burials
The Andronovo dead were buried in
At Kytmanovo in Russia between Mongolia and Kazakhstan, dated 1746–1626 BC, a strain of Yersinia pestis was extracted from a dead woman's tooth in a grave common to her and to two children.[40] This strain's genes express flagellin, which triggers the human immune response. However, by contrast with other prehistoric Yersinia pestis bacteria, the strain does so weakly; later, historic plague does not express flagellin at all, accounting for its virulence. The Kytmanovo strain was therefore under selection toward becoming a plague[41] (although it was not the plague).[42] The three people in that grave all died at the same time, and the researcher believes that this para-plague is what killed them.[43]
Ethnolinguistic affiliation with Indo-Iranians
It is almost universally agreed among scholars that the Andronovo culture was Indo-Iranian.[6][44] It is credited with the invention of the spoke-wheeled chariot around 2000 BC,[45][46] if we include the Sintashta culture, where the oldest known chariots have been found.[47][48] The association between the Andronovo culture and the Indo-Iranians is corroborated by the distribution of Iranian place-names across the Andronovo horizon and by the historical evidence of dominance by various Iranian-speaking peoples, including the Saka (Scythians), Sarmatians and Alans, throughout the Andronovo horizon during the 1st millennium BC.[6]
The
Comparisons between the archaeological evidence of the Andronovo and textual evidence of Indo-Iranians (i. e. the
According to Hiebert, an expansion of the BMAC into Iran and the margin of the Indus Valley is "the best candidate for an archaeological correlate of the introduction of Indo-Iranian speakers to Iran and South Asia",
Based on its use by Indo-Aryans in Mitanni and Vedic India, its prior absence in the Near East and Harappan India, and its 17th–16th century BC attestation at the Andronovo site of Sintashta, Kuzmina (1994) argues that the chariot corroborates the identification of Andronovo as Indo-Iranian. Klejn (1974) and Brentjes (1981) found the Andronovo culture much too late for an Indo-Iranian identification since chariot-using Aryans appear in Mitanni by the 15th century BC. However, Anthony & Vinogradov (1995) dated a chariot burial at Krivoye Lake to around 2000 BC.[59]
Eugene Helimski has suggested that the Andronovo people spoke a separate branch of Indo-Iranian. He claims that borrowings in the Finno-Ugric languages support this view.[60] Vladimir Napolskikh has proposed that borrowings in Finno-Ugric indicate that the language was specifically of the Indo-Aryan type.[61]
Since older forms of Indo-Iranian words have been taken over in Uralic and Proto-Yeniseian, occupation by some other languages (also lost ones) cannot be ruled out altogether, at least for part of the Andronovo area, i. e., Uralic and Yeniseian.[14]
Rasmus G. Bjørn (2022) describes the linguistic heritage of the Andronovo cultural complex as "Indo-Iranic dialect continuum", with a later split between Iranic and Indic. Early Iranic can be associated with later stages of the Andronovo horizon. Indo-Iranian derived loanwords via the Andronovo cultural complex can be found in both
Physical appearance
In studies from the mid-2000s, the Andronovo have been described by archaeologists as having cranial features similar to ancient and modern European populations.[63][64] Andronovo skulls are similar to those of the Srubnaya culture and Sintashta culture, exhibiting features such as dolicocephaly.[c] Through Iranian and Indo-Aryan migrations, this physical type expanded southwards and mixed with aboriginal peoples, contributing to the formation of modern populations of India.[d]
Archaeogenetics
The Andronovo culture and its population derived primarily from an eastwards expansion of the Central European Corded Ware culture via the Fatyanovo–Balanovo and Sintashta culture, which are characterized by the combination of mainly Yamnaya-like ancestry and Early European Farmers admixture. The spread of Sintashta-Andronovo ancestry correlates with the expansion of Indo-Iranian-speaking peoples.[67][68][69] Andronovo ancestry (c. 57%), in tandem with BMAC admixture (c. 43%), represents the later Iranian dispersal into the Iranian Plateau, while BMAC admixture is not found among the Indo-Aryan migrations into South Asia, suggesing two independent routes, one via the BMAC and one via the Inner Asian mountain corridor.[67][69]
Studies
Fox et al. (2004) established that, during the Bronze and Iron Age period, the majority of the population of Kazakhstan (part of the Andronovo culture during Bronze Age) was of West Eurasian origin (with mtDNA haplogroups such as U, H, HV, T, I and W), and that prior to the thirteenth to seventh century BC, all Kazakh samples belonged to European lineages.[70]
Keyser et al. (2009) published a study of the ancient
In a June 2015 study published in
A genetic study published in
In a genetic study published in
Manjusha Chintalapati, Nick Patterson, and Priya Moorjani (in a peer-reviewed paper, July 18, 2022) estimate through DATES (Distribution of Ancestry Tracts of Evolutionary Signals) that genetic characteristics, typical of Andronovo culture's people formed around 900 years before this archaeological culture appeared, c. 2900 BCE.[75]
Gallery
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Andronovo ceramics
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Andronovo ceramics
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Andronovo tools, foundry molds and pottery
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Andronovo bronze axes.[76]
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Chariot model, Arkaim museum
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Andronovo area.[77]
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Andronovo distribution.[77]
See also
History of Russia |
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Russia portal |
Notes
- ^ Russian: Андроновская культура, romanized: Andrónovskaya kultúra, pronounced [ɐnˈdronəfskəjə kʊlʲˈturə]
- ^ Sarianidi states that "direct archaeological data from Bactria and Margiana show without any shade of doubt that Andronovo tribes penetrated to a minimum extent into Bactria and Margianian oases".[57]
- ^ "[M]assive broad-faced proto-Europoid type is a trait of post-Mariupol’ cultures, Sredniy Stog, as well as the Pit-grave culture of the Dnieper’s left bank, the Donets, and Don... During the period of the Timber-grave culture the population of the Ukraine was represented by the medium type between the dolichocephalous narrow-faced population of the Multi-roller Ware culture (Babino) and the more massive broad-faced population of the Timber-grave culture of the Volga region... The anthropological data confirm the existence of an impetus from the Volga region to the Ukraine in the formation of the Timber-grave culture. During the Belozerka stage the dolichocranial narrow-faced type became the prevalent one. A close affinity among the skulls of the Timber-grave, Belozerka, and Scythian cultures of the Pontic steppes, on the one hand, and of the same cultures of the forest-steppe region, on the other, has been shown... This proves the genetical continuity between the Iranian-speaking Scythian population and the previous Timber-grave culture population in the Ukraine... The heir of the Neolithic Dnieper-Donets and Sredniy Stog cultures was the Pit-grave culture. Its population possessed distinct Europoid features, was tall, with massive skulls... The tribes of the Abashevo culture appear in the forest-steppe zone, almost simultaneously with the Poltavka culture. The Abashevans are marked by dolichocephaly and narrow faces. This population had its roots in the Balanovo and Fatyanovo cultures on the Middle Volga, and in Central Europe... [T]he early Timber-grave culture (the Potapovka) population was the result of the mixing of different components. One type was massive, and its predecessor was the Pit-grave-Poltavka type. The second type was a dolichocephalous Europoid type genetically related to the Sintashta population... One more participant of the ethno-cultural processes in the steppes was that of the tribes of the Pokrovskiy type. They were dolichocephalous narrow-faced Europoids akin to the Abashevans and different from the Potapovkans... The majority of Timber-grave culture skulls are dolichocranic with middle-broad faces. They evidence the significant role of Pit-grave and Poltavka components in the Timber-grave culture population... One may assume a genetic connection between the populations of the Timber-grave culture of the Urals region and the Alakul’ culture of the Urals and West Kazakhstan belonging to a dolichocephalous narrow-face type with the population of the Sintashta culture... [T]he western part of the Andronovo culture population belongs to the dolichocranic type akin to that of the Timber-grave culture.[65]
- ^ "The Eurasian steppe nomadic Saka were not immigrants from the Near East but direct descendants of Andronovans, and the mixed character of the Indo-Iranian-speaking populations of Iran and India is the result of a new population spreading among aboriginals with whom a new language is probably to be associated. This conclusion is confirmed by the evidence of Indo-Iranian tradition. The Aryans in the Avesta are tall, light-skinned people with light hair; their women were light-eyed, with long, light tresses... In the Rigveda light skin alongside language is the main feature of the Aryans, differentiating them from the aboriginal Dáśa-Dasyu population who were a dark-skinned, small people speaking another language and who did not believe in the Vedic gods... Skin color was the basis of social division of the Vedic Aryans; their society was divided into social groups varṇa, literally ‘color’. The varṇas of Aryan priests (brāhmaṇa) and warriors (kṣatriyaḥ or rājanya) were opposed to the varṇas of the aboriginal Dáśa, called ‘black-skinned’..."[66]
- ^ "European Late Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures such as Corded Ware, Bell Beakers, Unetice, and the Scandinavian cultures are genetically very similar to each other... The close affinity we observe between peoples of Corded Ware and Sintashta cultures suggests similar genetic sources of the two... Among Bronze Age Europeans, the highest tolerance frequency was found in Corded Ware and the closely-related Scandinavian Bronze Age cultures... The Andronovo culture, which arose in Central Asia during the later Bronze Age, is genetically closely related to the Sintashta peoples, and clearly distinct from both Yamnaya and Afanasievo. Therefore, Andronovo represents a temporal and geographical extension of the Sintashta gene pool, as there are many similarities between Sintasthta/Androvono rituals and those described in the Rig Veda and such similarities even extend as far as to the Nordic Bronze Age."[71]
- ^ "We observed a main cluster of Sintashta individuals that was similar to Srubnaya, Potapovka, and Andronovo in being well modeled as a mixture of Yamnaya-related and Anatolian Neolithic (European agriculturalist-related) ancestry."[53]
- ^ "Genetic analysis indicates that the individuals in our study classified as falling within the Andronovo complex are genetically similar to the main clusters of Potapovka, Sintashta, and Srubnaya in being well modeled as a mixture of Yamnaya-related and early European agriculturalist-related or Anatolian agriculturalist-related ancestry."[53]
- ^ "Many of the samples from this group are individuals buried in association with artifacts of the Corded Ware, Srubnaya, Petrovka, Sintashta and Andronovo complexes, all of which harboreda mixture of Steppe_EMBA ancestry and ancestry from European Middle Neolithic agriculturalists (Europe_MN). This is consistent with previous findings showing that following westward movement of eastern European populations and mixture with local European agriculturalists, there was an eastward reflux back beyond the Urals."[53]
References
- ^ Brown, Dorcas, and David Anthony, (2017). "Bronze Age Economy and Rituals at Krasnosamarskoe in the Russian Steppes", in: The Digital Archaeological Record: "...Particular attention focuses on the role of agriculture during the unusual episode of sedentary, settled pastoralism that spread across the Eurasian steppes with the Srubnaya and Andronovo cultures (1900-1200 BC)..."
- ^ a b Grigoriev, Stanislav, (2021). "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age", in Open Archaeology 2021 (7), p.3: "...By Andronovo cultures we may understand only Fyodorovka and Alakul cultures..."
- ^ a b c d e Parpola, Asko, (2020). "Royal 'Chariot' Burials of Sanauli near Delhi and Archaeological Correlates of Prehistoric Indo-Iranian Languages", in Studia Orientalia Electronica, Vol. 8, No. 1, Oct 23, 2020, p.188: "...the Alakul’ culture (c.2000–1700 BCE) in the west and the Fëdorovo culture (c.1850–1450 BCE) in the east..."
- ^ a b Degtyareva, A.D., et al., (2019). Metal Products of the Alekseyevka-Sargary Culture From the Middle and Upper Tobol Areas", in: Вестник археологии, антропологии и этнографии. 2019. № 4 (47): "The article describes morphological and typological characteristics of non-ferrous metal, determines the formulae of alloys, as well as identifies techniques used for the production of tools by the Alekseyevka-Sargary culture from the South Trans-Urals (15th/14th and 12th/11th BC)..."
- ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2. "It is assumed that the Indo–Iranian language family, which appeared around 2200 bc, was related to the cultural complex of Andronovo in eastern Central Asia."
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Mallory 1997, pp. 20–21
- ^ Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World. Princeton University Press.
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- ^ Hoshko, Tatiana, (2019). "Oriental Technologies in the Production of Cauldrons of Late bronze Age", in _Historiography, Source Studies and Special Historical Disciplines_,SKHID No. 2 (160) March–April 2019, p. 87.
- ^ Bendezu-Sarmiento, Julio, 2021. “The first nomads in Central Asia’s steppes (Kazakhstan): An overview of major socio-economic changes, derived from funerary practices of the Andronovo and Saka populations of the Bronze and Iron Ages (2nd-1st millennium BCE)”, in: Nomad lives: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day, Publications scientifiques du Muséum, Paris, pp. 479-503.
- ^ Bendezu-Sarmiento, Julio, 2021. “The first nomads in Central Asia’s steppes (Kazakhstan)", Summary (in French): "...Durant la première étape de la culture d’Andronovo (Bronze ancien à la fin du IIIe millénaire avant n.è.), le cheptel (principalement constitué de bovins) était réduit et le fourrage naturel n’était nullement difficile à trouver dans les pâturages proches des habitations..."
- ^ Bendezu-Sarmiento, Julio, (2022). "The first nomads in Central Asia’s steppes (Kazakhstan): Territory, power and religion", in: Eurasian steppe civilization: Human and the Historical and Cultural Environment, Almaty–Turkistan, p. 48: "During the first stage of the Andronovo culture (Early Bronze Age to the end of the 3rd millennium BC), the livestock (mainly cattle) was small and natural fodder was not difficult to find in the pastures near the settlements."
- ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 49: "Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo-Iranians."
- ^ a b Witzel, M. Linguistic Evidence for Cultural Exchange in Prehistoric Western Central Asia. 2003, Sino-Platonic Papers 129 (PDF).
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- Great Soviet Encyclopaedia, Article "Andronovo".
- ^ Nomination to the World Heritage list of Sarazm (PDF). p. 22.
Sarazm is unique as a gateway to the steppe world, up to Southern Siberia, during the Chalcolithic period (Afanasevo) long before the spread of the Andronovo steppe culture in South Central Asia in the 2nd millennium BC.
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- ^ Grigoriev, Stanislav, (2021). "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age" Archived 2021-12-09 at the Wayback Machine, in Open Archaeology 2021 (7), p.28: ".... The Fyodorovka dates in the north of the forest- steppe Tobol region are close to the dates in the Southern Transurals and lie in the interval of the 20th–16th centuries BC...Fyodorovka culture, in general, is synchronous with Alakul..."
- ^ Diakonoff 1995:473
- ^ Dodson, John, et al., (2021). "Environmental change and the timing of the settlement of the Bronze Age Andronovo culture, in far northwest Xinjiang, China", in: The Holocene, p. 5: "...The Andronovo people, with a similar economic base to that of the Qiemu’erqieke people, arrived from the west ca. 3800 cal year BP, by which time the climate had peaked, with the Bortala Valley experiencing a further increase in moisture but some cooling...Traces of the Andronovo culture fade out in Xinjiang around 3300 cal year BP for reasons that are not yet clear. This roughly coincides with the rise of the first mounted horsemen of the steppes, the Deer Stone-Khirigsuur (DSK) complex, emerging in Mongolia and southern Russia (Fitzhugh, 2009)..."
- ^ Jia, Peter W., Alison Betts, Dexin Cong, Xiaobing Jia, & Paula Doumani Dupuy, (2017). "Adunqiaolu: new evidence for the Andronovo in Xinjiang, China", in _Antiquity 91 (357)_, pp. 632, 634, 637.
- ^ Mallory, J.P., (1997). "Andronovo Culture", in J.P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams (eds.), Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, London and Chicago, p. 20: "...Alekseyevka culture...(1200–1000 BC)..."
- ^ a b Jia, Peter W., Alison Betts, Dexin Cong, Xiaobing Jia, & Paula Doumani Dupuy, (2017). "Adunqiaolu: new evidence for the Andronovo in Xinjiang, China", in _Antiquity 91 (357)_, pp. 621-639.
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- ^ Mallory 1989:62
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- ^ George Erdosy (2012), The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, Walter de Gruyter, p. 371.
- ^ "The most ancient evidence of horsemanship in the bronze age". phys.org. Retrieved 2020-07-18.
- ^ "Russian Scientists Have Discovered the Most Ancient Evidence of Horsemanship in the Bronze Age - South Ural State University". www.susu.ru. Retrieved 2020-07-18.
- ^ Ventresca Miller, A., Usmanova, E., Logvin, V., Kalieva, S., Shevnina, I., Logvin, A., Kolbina, A., Suslov, A., Privat, K., Haas, K. and Rosenmeier, M., 2014. Subsistence and social change in central Eurasia: stable isotope analysis of populations spanning the Bronze Age transition. Journal of Archaeological Science, 42, pp.525-538.
- ^ Cerasetti, Barbara, (2020). "Who interacted with whom? redefining the interaction between BMAC people and mobile pastoralists in Bronze Age southern Turkmenistan", in: Bertille Lyonnet and Nadezhda A Dubova (eds.), The World of the Oxus Civilization, Routledge, p. 487-488: "...the presence of the so-called Andronovo or steppe culture in campsites located on the sand dunes among BMAC settlements or close to them, has been clearly brought to light...This culture is characterized by a typical gray-brown handmade pottery with incised geometrical decoration (Incised Coarse Ware - ICW)..."
- ^ Cerasetti, Barbara, (1998). "Preliminary Report on Ornamental Elements of 'Incised Coarse Ware'", in: A. Gubaev, G. Koshelenko, and M. Tosi (eds.), Murghab: A Civilization Heartland between River and Desert, Istituto Italiano Per L'Africa E L'Oriente, p. 67: "...a significant amount of Incised Coarse Ware (ICW), related to Bronze Age nomadic stock-riders over a vast portion of Eurasia, between the Urals and [Kashgaria]. Soviet authors have often labelled [it]...as 'Andronovo Ware'..."
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- Koryakova, L. (1998a). "Sintashta-Arkaim Culture". The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Retrieved 16 September 2010.
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Further reading
- Chechushkov, Igor V.; et al. (August 2020). "Early evidence for horse utilization in the Eurasian steppes and the case of the Novoil'inovskiy 2 Cemetery in Kazakhstan". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 32. S2CID 225452095. Retrieved July 16, 2020.
- Ning, Chao & Zheng, Hong-Xiang & Zhang, Fan & Wu, Sihao & Li, Chunxiang & Zhao, Yongbin & Xu, Yang & Wei, Dong & Wu, Yong & Gao, Shizhu & Jin, Li & Cui, Yinqiu. (2021). "Ancient Mitochondrial Genomes Reveal Extensive Genetic Influence of the Steppe Pastoralists in Western Xinjiang". In: Frontiers in Genetics. 12. 10.3389/fgene.2021.740167.
External links
- Center for the Study of Eurasian Nomads (csen.org)
- The Discovery of Sintashta (a Russian-language article by two archaeologists who directed the excavations)
- Archaic Motifs in North Russian Folk Embroidery and Parallels in Ancient Ornamental Designs of the Eurasian Steppe Peoples S. Zharnikova