Animal
Animals Temporal range: Cryogenian – present,
| |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Clade: | Amorphea |
Clade: | Obazoa |
(unranked): | Opisthokonta |
(unranked): | Holozoa |
(unranked): | Filozoa |
Clade: | Choanozoa |
Kingdom: | Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 |
Subdivisions | |
| |
Synonyms | |
Animals are
Over 1.5 million
Most living animal species belong to the infrakingdom
Animals first appear in the fossil record in the late
Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without. Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema Naturae, which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa (now synonymous with Animalia) and the Protozoa, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on advanced techniques, such as molecular phylogenetics, which are effective at demonstrating the evolutionary relationships between taxa.
.Etymology
The word animal comes from the Latin noun animal of the same meaning, which is itself derived from Latin animalis 'having breath or soul'.[6] The biological definition includes all members of the kingdom Animalia.[7] In colloquial usage, the term animal is often used to refer only to nonhuman animals.[8][9][10][11] The term metazoa is derived from Ancient Greek μετα (meta) 'after' (in biology, the prefix meta- stands for 'later') and ζῷᾰ (zōia) 'animals', plural of ζῷον zōion 'animal'.[12][13]
Characteristics
Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things. Animals are
Structure
All animals are composed of cells, surrounded by a characteristic
With few exceptions—in particular, the sponges and
Reproduction and development
Nearly all animals make use of some form of sexual reproduction.
Repeated instances of mating with a close relative during sexual reproduction generally leads to inbreeding depression within a population due to the increased prevalence of harmful recessive traits.[37][38] Animals have evolved numerous mechanisms for avoiding close inbreeding.[39]
Some animals are capable of asexual reproduction, which often results in a genetic clone of the parent. This may take place through fragmentation; budding, such as in Hydra and other cnidarians; or parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, such as in aphids.[40][41]
Ecology
Animals are categorised into ecological groups depending on their
Most animals rely on
Animals evolved in the sea. Lineages of arthropods colonised land around the same time as
Diversity
Size
The
Numbers and habitats of major phyla
The following table lists estimated numbers of described extant species for the major animal phyla,[68] along with their principal habitats (terrestrial, fresh water,[69] and marine),[70] and free-living or parasitic ways of life.[71] Species estimates shown here are based on numbers described scientifically; much larger estimates have been calculated based on various means of prediction, and these can vary wildly. For instance, around 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes have been described, while published estimates of the total number of nematode species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 million.[72] Using patterns within the taxonomic hierarchy, the total number of animal species—including those not yet described—was calculated to be about 7.77 million in 2011.[73][74][b]
Phylum | Example | Described species | Land | Sea
|
Freshwater | Free-living | Parasitic
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arthropoda
|
1,257,000[68] | Yes 1,000,000 (insects)[76] |
Yes >40,000 (Malac- ostraca)[77] |
Yes 94,000[69] | Yes[70] | Yes >45,000[c][71] | |
Mollusca | 85,000[68] 107,000[78] |
Yes 35,000[78] | Yes 60,000[78] | Yes 5,000[69] 12,000[78] |
Yes[70] | Yes >5,600[71] | |
Chordata
|
>70,000[68][79] | Yes 23,000[80] | Yes 13,000[80] | Yes 18,000[69] 9,000[80] |
Yes | Yes 40 (catfish)[81][71] | |
Platyhelminthes
|
29,500[68] | Yes[82] | Yes[70] | Yes 1,300[69] | Yes[70] 3,000–6,500[83] |
Yes >40,000[71] 4,000–25,000[83] | |
Nematoda
|
25,000[68] | Yes (soil)[70] | Yes 4,000[72] | Yes 2,000[69] | Yes 11,000[72] |
Yes 14,000[72] | |
Annelida
|
17,000[68] | Yes (soil)[70] | Yes[70] | Yes 1,750[69] | Yes | Yes 400[71] | |
Cnidaria | 16,000[68] | Yes[70] | Yes (few)[70] | Yes[70] | Yes >1,350 (Myxozoa)[71] | ||
Porifera
|
10,800[68] | Yes[70] | 200–300[69] | Yes | Yes[84] | ||
Echinodermata
|
7,500[68] | Yes 7,500[68] | Yes[70] | ||||
Bryozoa | 6,000[68] | Yes[70] | Yes 60–80[69] | Yes | |||
Rotifera
|
2,000[68] | Yes >400[85] | Yes 2,000[69] | Yes | Yes[86] | ||
Nemertea | 1,350[87][88] | Yes | Yes | Yes | |||
Tardigrada
|
1,335[68] | Yes[89] (moist plants) |
Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
Evolutionary origin
Evidence of animals is found as long ago as the
The first body fossils of animals appear in the Ediacaran, represented by forms such as Charnia and Spriggina. It had long been doubted whether these fossils truly represented animals,[92][93][94] but the discovery of the animal lipid cholesterol in fossils of Dickinsonia establishes their nature.[95] Animals are thought to have originated under low-oxygen conditions, suggesting that they were capable of living entirely by anaerobic respiration, but as they became specialized for aerobic metabolism they became fully dependent on oxygen in their environments.[96]
Many animal phyla first appear in the
Some palaeontologists have suggested that animals appeared much earlier than the Cambrian explosion, possibly as early as 1 billion years ago.
-
Dickinsonia costata from the Ediacaran biota (c. 635–542 mya) is one of the earliest animal species known.[95]
-
Auroralumina attenboroughii, an Ediacaran predator (c. 560 mya)[103]
-
Burgess shale.
Phylogeny
External phylogeny
Animals are monophyletic, meaning they are derived from a common ancestor. Animals are the sister group to the choanoflagellates, with which they form the Choanozoa.[112] The dates on the phylogenetic tree indicate approximately how many millions of years ago (mya) the lineages split.[113][114][115][116][117]
Ros-Rocher and colleagues (2021) trace the origins of animals to unicellular ancestors, providing the external phylogeny shown in the cladogram. Uncertainty of relationships is indicated with dashed lines.[118]
Opisthokonta
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
1300 mya |
Internal phylogeny
The most basal animals, the
Hox genes are found in the Placozoa,
Giribet and Edgecombe (2020) provide what they consider to be a consensus internal phylogeny of the animals, embodying uncertainty about the structure at the base of the tree (dashed lines).[128]
Animalia |
| |||||||||
multicellular |
An alternative phylogeny, from Kapli and colleagues (2021), proposes a clade Xenambulacraria for the Xenacoelamorpha + Ambulacraria; this is either within Deuterostomia, as sister to Chordata, or the Deuterostomia are recovered as paraphyletic, and Xenambulacraria is sister to the proposed clade Centroneuralia, consisting of Chordata + Protostomia.[129]
Non-bilateria
Several animal phyla lack bilateral symmetry. These are the
Sponges are physically very distinct from other animals, and were long thought to have diverged first, representing the oldest animal phylum and forming a
The comb jellies and Cnidaria are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both mouth and anus.
The tiny placozoans have no permanent digestive chamber and no symmetry; they superficially resemble amoebae.[142][143] Their phylogeny is poorly defined, and under active research.[134][144]
Bilateria
The remaining animals, the great majority—comprising some 29 phyla and over a million species—form the Bilateria clade, which have a bilaterally symmetric body plan. The Bilateria are triploblastic, with three well-developed germ layers, and their tissues form distinct organs. The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is an internal body cavity, a coelom or pseudocoelom. These animals have a head end (anterior) and a tail end (posterior), a back (dorsal) surface and a belly (ventral) surface, and a left and a right side.[145][146]
Having a front end means that this part of the body encounters stimuli, such as food, favouring
Genetic studies have considerably changed zoologists' understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria. Most appear to belong to two major lineages, the
Protostomes and deuterostomes
Protostomes and deuterostomes differ in several ways. Early in development, deuterostome embryos undergo radial cleavage during cell division, while many protostomes (the Spiralia) undergo spiral cleavage.[152] Animals from both groups possess a complete digestive tract, but in protostomes the first opening of the embryonic gut develops into the mouth, and the anus forms secondarily. In deuterostomes, the anus forms first while the mouth develops secondarily.[153][154] Most protostomes have schizocoelous development, where cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm. In deuterostomes, the mesoderm forms by enterocoelic pouching, through invagination of the endoderm.[155]
The main deuterostome phyla are the Echinodermata and the Chordata.
Ecdysozoa
The Ecdysozoa are protostomes, named after their shared
Spiralia
The Spiralia are a large group of protostomes that develop by spiral cleavage in the early embryo.
The Lophotrochozoa includes the
History of classification
In the
In 1758,
In his 1817
In 1874,
In human culture
Practical uses
The human population exploits a large number of other animal species for food, both of
Animals such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster serve a major role in science as experimental models.[198][199][200][201] Animals have been used to create vaccines since their discovery in the 18th century.[202] Some medicines such as the cancer drug trabectedin are based on toxins or other molecules of animal origin.[203]
People have used
A wide variety of animals are kept as pets, from invertebrates such as tarantulas, octopuses, andA wide variety of terrestrial and aquatic animals are hunted for sport.[216]
Symbolic uses
The
Animals have been the
Animals including insects[219] and mammals[227] feature in mythology and religion. The scarab beetle was sacred in ancient Egypt,[228] and the cow is sacred in Hinduism.[229] Among other mammals, deer,[227] horses,[230] lions,[231] bats,[232] bears,[233] and wolves[234] are the subjects of myths and worship.
See also
- Animal coloration
- Ethology
- Lists of organisms by population
- World Animal Day, observed on 4 October
Notes
- ^ Henneguya zschokkei does not have mitochondrial DNA or utilize aerobic respiration.[19]
- ^ The application of DNA barcoding to taxonomy further complicates this; a 2016 barcoding analysis estimated a total count of nearly 100,000 insect species for Canada alone, and extrapolated that the global insect fauna must be in excess of 10 million species, of which nearly 2 million are in a single fly family known as gall midges (Cecidomyiidae).[75]
- ^ Not including parasitoids.[71]
- ^ Compare File:Annelid redone w white background.svg for a more specific and detailed model of a particular phylum with this general body plan.
- ^ In his History of Animals and Parts of Animals.
- ^ The French prefix une espèce de is pejorative.[176]
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External links
- Media related to Animals at Wikimedia Commons
- Data related to Animal at Wikispecies
- Tree of Life Project. Archived 12 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- Animal Diversity Web – University of Michigan's database of animals
- Wildscreen Arkive – multimedia database of endangered/protected species