Dactyloidae
Dactyloidae Temporal range: Eocene - Recent
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Carolina (or green) anole
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Reptilia |
Order: | Squamata |
Suborder: | Iguania |
Family: | Dactyloidae Fitzinger, 1843 |
Genera | |
1–8, see text |
Dactyloidae are a family of lizards commonly known as anoles (US: /əˈnoʊ.liz/ ⓘ) and native to warmer parts of the Americas, ranging from southeastern United States to Paraguay.[1][2] Instead of treating it as a family, some authorities prefer to treat it as a subfamily, Dactyloinae, of the family Iguanidae.[3][4] In the past they were included in the family Polychrotidae together with Polychrus (bush anoles), but the latter genus is not closely related to the true anoles.[5][6]
Anoles are small to fairly large lizards, typically green or brownish, but their color varies depending on species and many can also change it.
Anoles are active during the day and feed mostly on small animals such as insects, but some will also take fruits, flowers, and nectar.[7][13][14] Almost all species are fiercely territorial. After mating, the female lays an egg (occasionally two); in many species she may do so every few days or weeks.[7][8][15] The egg is typically placed on the ground, but in some species it is placed at higher levels.[7][16]
Anoles are widely studied in fields such as ecology, behavior, and evolution,[7][17] and some species are commonly kept in captivity as pets.[18] Anoles can function as a biological pest control by eating insects that may harm humans or plants,[19] but represent a serious risk to small native animals and ecosystems if introduced to regions outside their home range.[20][21]
Distribution and habitat
Anoles are a very diverse and plentiful group of lizards. They are native to tropical and subtropical South America, Central America, Mexico, the offshore East Pacific Cocos, Gorgona and Malpelo Islands, the West Indies and southeastern United States.[2][7]
A particularly high species richness exists in
The only species native to the contiguous United States is the
Anoles inhabit a wide range of habitats, from highlands (up to at least 3,750 m or 12,300 ft above sea level
Appearance and behavior
Anoles vary in size. Males generally reach a larger size than females, but in a few species it is the other way around.[8] Adults of most anoles are between 4 and 8 cm (1.5–3 in) in snout-to-vent length,[46] and between 10 and 20 cm (4–8 in) in total length, including the tail.[1][8] In the smallest, the five-striped grass anole, the snout-to-vent length is about 3 and 3.5 cm (1.2 and 1.4 in) in females and males respectively,[2][46] but it is a relatively long-tailed species.[47] There are several large species that are more than 10 cm (4 in) in snout-to-vent length.[2][48] Males of the largest, the knight anole,[18] reach up to about 19 cm (7.5 in) in snout-to-vent length,[2] 51 cm (20 in) in total length,[1] and 137 g (5 oz) in weight.[49] There are both robust and gracile species, and the head shape varies from relatively broad to elongate.[50]
The tail of anoles varies, but mostly it is longer than the snout-to-vent length. Depending on exact species it can range from slightly shorter to about three times the snout-to-vent.
Underneath an anole's toes are pads that have several to a dozen flaps of skin (adhesive
Despite having relatively small eyes, their primary sense is sight, which is excellent and in color.
Anoles are
Colors
Most anoles are brownish or green, but there are extensive variations depending on the exact species.
Their colors during the night when sleeping often differ distinctly from their colors during the day where awake. Among these are some species that otherwise do not drastically change their colors, including certain anoles that generally are brown during the day changing to greenish or whitish when sleeping at night,[76][82] and certain anoles that generally are green during the day changing to brown when sleeping at night.[83]
Disregarding color change, minor individual variations in the basic color and pattern, mostly related to sex or age, are common. In some anole species this variation is more pronounced and not only related to sex and age. An example of this is the basic color of the
Dewlap
Most—but not all—anole species have
The dewlap serves as a signal for attracting partners,
Several other
Sexual dimorphism
In some anoles the sexes are very similar and difficult to separated under normal viewing conditions, but most species exhibit clear
The males of many species are overall more brightly colored, while females are duller, more cryptic, and sometimes their upperparts have striped or lined patterns that serve to break up the outline of the anole.[8] In general, the juvenile colors and pattern resemble those of the adult female.[75] The dewlap tends to be more colorful in males,[8] with clear differences being common among anoles of the mainland of the Americas and comparatively rarer in the Caribbean species.[114]
Territoriality and breeding
Almost all anole species are highly territorial, at least the males, but a few exceptions do exist, including the rock-living
In addition to differences in the appearance of the dewlap, the frequency of the dewlap opening/closing and the frequency and amplitude of the head bobbing differ between species, allowing them to separate each other.[30][124] Territoriality is typically aimed at other individuals of the same species, but in a few cases it is also directed towards other anoles, as can be seen between the crested and Cook's anoles. Unlike most anoles with widely overlapping ranges, these two inhabit very similar niches and directly compete for resources.[125]
The breeding period varies. In species or populations living in highly seasonal regions it is generally relatively short, typically during the wet season. It is prolonged, often even year-round, in species or populations living in regions with less distinct seasons.
Feeding
Anoles are opportunistic feeders, and may attempt to eat any attractive meal that is of the right size. They primarily feed on insects like
Hunting is done by sight,
In addition to animal prey, many anole species will take plant material, notably fruits, flowers and
Predator avoidance and deterrence
A wide range of animals will eat anoles, such as large spiders, centipedes, predatory katydids, snakes, large frogs, lizards, birds, monkeys, bats and carnivoran mammals.[7][150] At least in part of their range, snakes may be the most significant predator of anoles.[8] For example, the Caribbean Alsophis and Borikenophis racers, and the Mexican, Central American and South American Oxybelis vine snakes feed mostly on lizards like anoles.[151][152] Some reptile-eating snakes have a specialized venom that has little effect on humans, but it rapidly kills an anole.[153] On some Caribbean Islands anoles make up as much as 40–75% of the diet of American kestrels.[71] Large anoles may eat smaller individuals of other anole species and cannibalism—eating smaller individuals of their own species—is also widespread.[139] There is a documented case of a small anole being captured and killed by an outside potted Venus flytrap plant.[154]
Anoles mainly detect potential enemies by sight, but their hearing range also closely matches the typical vocal range of birds. If hearing a predatory bird, like a kestrel or hawk, they increase their vigilance. When hearing a non-predatory bird little or no change happens.
Anole tails often have the ability to break off at special segments, which is known as autotomy. The tail continues to wriggle for a period after detaching, attracting the attention of the predator and commonly allowing the anole to escape.[62] The tail is regenerated, but it takes more than two months to complete this process.[10][161] About two dozen anoles, including almost all members of the latifrons species group, all in the chamaeleonidae species group and the La Palma anole, do not have the ability to autotomize the tail.[2]
If caught or cornered, anoles will bite in self-defense.
Evolution
The evolution of anoles has been widely studied, and they have been described as a "textbook example of adaptive radiation and convergent evolution".[164] Especially the widespread convergent evolution seen in anoles living in the Greater Antilles has attracted the attention of scientists, and resulted in comparisons with the Darwin's finches of the Galápagos Islands, lemurs of Madagascar and cichlid fish in the African Great Lakes.[165][166][167]
Ecomorphs and origin
On each major Greater Antillean Island (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and
Species and adaptability
In contrast to this, anoles can change rapidly in response to changes, which is an example of
Taxonomy
The name for this group of lizards originates from the
Several
More than 425 species of true anoles are known.
Genera
Traditionally, all the true anoles were included in the genus Anolis and some continue to use this treatment,
The relationship of Dactyloidae can be described with a cladogram.[2][3] Whether the eight groups are best recognized as separate genera or only as clades within a single genus, Anolis, is disputed.[2][3][192][193][194] A few families between Polychrotidae and Corytophanidae+Dactyloidae are not shown:[5][6][11]
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Dactyloa:
About 95 species from southern Central America, South America and southern Lesser Antilles (shown: Dactyloa podocarpus) -
Audantia cyboter)
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Chamaelinorops:
7 species from Hispaniola and surrounding small islands (example: Chamaelinorops barbouri) -
Xiphosurus barbatus)
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Anolis:
About 45 species from Cuba, Hispaniola, Bahamas, Little Cayman and southeastern United States (shown: Anolis porcatus) -
Ctenonotus:
More than 40 species from Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and northern Lesser Antilles (shown: Ctenonotus schwartzi) -
Norops:)
About 190 species from Mexico, Central and South America, Cuba, Jamaica, Cayman and Bahamas (shown: Norops poecilopus
Relationship with humans
Anoles are model organisms often studied in fields such as ecology, behavior, physiology and evolution.[3][7][17] The Carolina (or green) anole is the most-studied anole species, with the earliest dedicated studies being more than 100 years old, from the late 1800s.[97] The Carolina anole was the first reptile where the entire genome was sequenced.[195][196]
Anoles are harmless to humans, but if caught or cornered they will bite in self-defense. As typical of animals, the bite force is strongly correlated to the size of the anole.[197] It causes little pain in the smaller anoles which usually do not break the skin.[162] Large species have relatively strong jaws lined with small, sharp teeth, and their bite can be painful and result in a superficial wound, but it is still essentially harmless.[18][198][199]
Some anole species are commonly kept in captivity as pets and especially the Carolina (or green) anole is often described as a good "beginner's reptile", but it too requires specialized care.[18][147][200]
Anoles can function as a
Conservation
The willingness of many anoles of living close to humans in heavily altered habitats have made them common.
Nevertheless, anoles overall do not appear to have experienced the widespread
Species restricted to a specific habitat in relatively remote regions, infrequently visited by biologists looking for reptiles, are often virtually unknown and rarely recorded.[219] In a review in 2017, it was found that 15 anole species only were known from their holotype.[207] These may truly be rare and seriously threatened, as the proboscis anole, a species that only was known from a single specimen collected in 1953 until it was rediscovered in cloud forests of Ecuador in 2004.[220][221] In others with few records, like the Neblina anole, this is not the case. It was initially known from six 1980s specimens from the remote Neblina highlands in Venezuela, but when the Brazilian part of these highlands were visited in 2017 it was discovered that the species was locally abundant.[222] Some species are easily overlooked, even if common. For example, if searching for Orces' Andes anole during the night when asleep they can be fairly easy to find, but if visiting the same location during the day it can be very difficult to find any.[223]
As introduced species
When introduced to regions outside their native range by humans, anoles may become invasive and represent a serious threat to small local animals. Such introductions may happen by mistake (for example, as "stowaways" on garden plants) or deliberately (as predators introduced to combat insects or release of pet anoles people no longer want).[137][202][224]
In the contiguous United States, the Carolina anole has been introduced to California, the brown anole has been introduced to the Gulf Coast states and California, and the knight,
See also
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External links
- Media related to Dactyloidae at Wikimedia Commons