Antarctica during World War II

International competition extended to the continent of Antarctica during the World War II era, though the region saw no combat. During the prelude to war, Nazi Germany organised the 1938 Third German Antarctic Expedition to preempt Norway's claim to Queen Maud Land.^[1] The expedition served as the basis for a new German claim, called New Swabia.^[2] A year later, the United States Antarctic Service Expedition established two bases, which operated for two years before being abandoned.^[3] Responding to these encroachments, and taking advantage of Europe's wartime turmoil, the nearby nations of Chile and Argentina made their own claims. In 1940 Chile proclaimed the Chilean Antarctic Territory in areas already claimed by Britain, while Argentina proclaimed Argentine Antarctica in 1943 in an overlapping area.

In response to the activities of Germany, Chile, Argentina, and the United States, Britain launched Operation Tabarin in 1943. Its objective was to establish a permanent presence and assert Britain's claim to the Falkland Islands Dependencies,^[4] as well as to deny use of the area to the Kriegsmarine, which was known to use remote islands as rendezvous points. There was also a fear that Japan might attempt to seize the Falkland Islands. The expedition under Lieutenant James Marr^[5] left the Falklands on 29 January 1944. Bases were established on Deception Island, the coast of Graham Land, and at Hope Bay. The research begun by Operation Tabarin continued in subsequent years, ultimately becoming the British Antarctic Survey.^[6]

In the postwar period, competition continued among Antarctica's claimant powers, as well as the United States and Soviet Union. In the late 1950s, this competition would gave way to a cooperative international framework with the International Geophysical Year and the Antarctic Treaty.

Third German Antarctic Expedition and New Swabia (1938–1939)

Norway.^[8] The expedition was led by Capt. Alfred Ritscher^[9] who had previous experience in polar expeditions.^[10] The ship landed at the Princess Martha Coast on 19 January 1939 where research soon began after the team constructed a temporary base. They planted German flags on the coast line and surveyed the area where they recorded claim reservations at significant locations along the coast. The MS Schwabenland brought along two Dornier Wal seaplanes that took fifteen total photographic survey flights with 16,000 aerial photographs taken of the Neuschwabenland area. After the expedition left Antarctica on 6 February 1939 they returned to Hamburg on 11 April 1939. Nazi Germany never developed any type of permanent settlement in Antarctica^[11] and forfeited its claim to the New Swabia area in 1945 after its defeat in the Second World War.

The United States Antarctic Service Expedition was the first government funded Antarctic expedition since the

The Team brought along a newly designed Antarctic Snow Cruiser which had smooth tract-less tires which made it difficult to grip onto the Antarctic ice.^[19] Due to this problem and constant repair and maintenance on the tires the vehicle was abandoned when the expedition team evacuated.^[20] It was found years later during Operation Highjump and once more in 1958. It is now suspected to be lost to the sea or buried under mounds of ice and snow.^[21] The crew of the mission which included Richard Black and Paul Siple^[22] conducted multiple experiments and observations including collecting samples of plants, algae and lichen.^[23] The mission resulted in a better understanding of polar science.^[24] With World War II ramping up the U.S government deemed it wise to evacuate the two bases. West Base cleared on 1 February 1941 and East Base followed suite on 22 March 1941. The ships USMS North star and Bear of Oakland arrived on 5 May 1941 and 18 May 1941 respectively.^[25]

German Pacific Commerce Raiders (1940–1943)

During World War II, Nazi Germany constructed a commerce-raiding fleet of Auxiliary Merchant Cruisers destined to sail through the Pacific and disrupt Allied shipping.^[26] The main goal of these raiders was to destroy and capture enemy shipping. The Germans constructed 9 ships which were merchant ships that were converted to armed raiders with 5.9 inch guns and torpedo tubes.^[27] They were often disguised as neutral vessels.^[28]

While the ships mainly spent time in warmer waters near Asia many did stray into colder waters. The Atlantis for example stopped at Kerguelen Islands in December 1940 to rest and resupply on water and food.^[29][30] The ship suffered its first wartime casualty when they lost Bernhard Herrmann after an accident on Christmas eve.^[31] Many of the raiders used the islands as a stopping ground to swap disguises and refuel.^[32] The cruiser Pinguin captured a fleet of Norwegian fishers on 14 January 1941 near South Georgia.^[33][34]

German presence in the Pacific dwindled until the last ship was sunk or captured in the mid 1940s.

Argentine expeditions (1942 and 1943)

Argentina conducted two expeditions during the Second World War.^[35] The first occurred in late 1942, the second in February 1943.^[35]

1942 expedition

The first expedition happened in 1942 when the ship Primero De Mayo captained by Alberto J. Oddera landed on Deception Island where surveying was conducted. Following the surveying the crew of the expedition planted a flag to claim the area for Argentina.^[36]

1943 expedition

The 1943 expedition occurred in February following the destruction of the previous expeditions flag by MV Carnarvon Castle.^[37] The expedition was largely uneventful with little activity besides photographic surveys of the Port Lockroy area.^[35]

Operation Tabarin (1943–1946)

Operation Tabarin was a secret mission undertaken by the British