Anthrax vaccine

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Anthrax vaccines
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Anthrax vaccine
Vaccine description
TargetAnthrax

Anthrax vaccines are

bacterium Bacillus anthracis.[1]

They have had a prominent place in the history of medicine, from Pasteur's pioneering 19th-century work with cattle (the first effective

bacterial vaccine and the second effective vaccine ever) to the controversial late 20th century use of a modern product to protect American troops against the use of anthrax in biological warfare. Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s. The current vaccine approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) was formulated in the 1960s.  

Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include acellular (USA, UK) and live spore (Russia) varieties. All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general

soreness, fever) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1% of recipients.[2]
New third-generation vaccines being researched include recombinant live vaccines and recombinant sub-unit vaccines.

Pasteur's vaccine

In the 1870s, the French chemist

control group was left unvaccinated. Thirty days after the first injection, both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria. All the animals in the non-vaccinated group died, while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived.[3]
The public reception was sensational.

Pasteur publicly claimed he had made the anthrax vaccine by exposing the bacilli to oxygen. His laboratory notebooks, now in the

veterinary surgeon, to create the anthrax vaccine.[4][5] This method used the oxidizing agent potassium dichromate. Pasteur's oxygen method did eventually produce a vaccine but only after he had been awarded a patent
on the production of an anthrax vaccine.

The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for

chicken cholera vaccination was that the weakened form of the latter two disease organisms had been "generated artificially", so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found. This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name "vaccines", in honor of Jenner's groundbreaking discovery. In 1885, Pasteur produced his celebrated first vaccine for rabies
by growing the virus in rabbits and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue.

In 1995, the centennial of Pasteur's death, The New York Times ran an article titled "Pasteur's Deception". After having thoroughly read Pasteur's lab notes, the science historian Gerald L. Geison declared Pasteur had given a misleading account of the preparation of the anthrax vaccine used in the experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort.[6][7][8] The same year, Max Perutz published a vigorous defense of Pasteur in The New York Review of Books.[9][10][11]

Sterne's vaccine

The Austrian-South African immunologist Max Sterne (1905–1997) developed an attenuated live animal vaccine in 1935 that is still employed and derivatives of his strain account for almost all veterinary anthrax vaccines used in the world today.[12] Beginning in 1934 at the Onderstepoort Veterinary Research Institute, north of Pretoria, he prepared an attenuated anthrax vaccine, using the method developed by Pasteur. A persistent problem with Pasteur's vaccine was achieving the correct balance between virulence and immunogenicity during preparation. This notoriously difficult procedure regularly produced casualties among vaccinated animals. With little help from colleagues, Sterne performed small-scale experiments which isolated the "Sterne strain" (34F2) of anthrax which became, and remains today, the basis of most of the improved livestock anthrax vaccines throughout the world.[13] As Sterne's vaccine is a live vaccine, vaccination during use of antibiotics produces much reduced results and should be avoided. There is a withholding period after vaccination when animals cannot be slaughtered. No such period is defined for milk and there are no reports of humans being infected by products from vaccinated animals. There have been a few cases when humans accidentally self-inject the vaccine when trying to administer to a struggling animal. One case developed fever and meningitis, but it is unclear whether the illness was caused by the vaccine. Livestock anthrax vaccines are made in many countries around the world, most of which use 34F2 with saponin adjuvant.[14]

Soviet/Russian anthrax vaccines

Anthrax vaccines were developed in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and available for use in humans by 1940.

Tbilisi, Georgia, until 1991.[22] As of 2008, the STI-1 vaccine remains available, and is the only human anthrax vaccine "nominally available outside national borders".[14]

China uses a different live attenuated strain for their human vaccines, designated "A16R". The A16R vaccine is given as a suspention in 50% glycerol and distilled water. A single dose is given by scarification, followed by a booster in 6 or 12 months, then annual boosters.[14]

British anthrax vaccines

British biochemist Harry Smith (1921–2011), working for the UK bio-weapons program at Porton Down, discovered the three anthrax toxins in 1948. This discovery was the basis of the next generation of antigenic anthrax vaccines and for modern antitoxins to anthrax.[23] The widely used British anthrax vaccine—sometimes called Anthrax Vaccine Precipitated (AVP) to distinguish it from the similar AVA (see below)—became available for human use in 1954. This was a cell-free vaccine in distinction to the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine previously used for veterinary purposes.[24] It is now manufactured by Porton Biopharma Ltd, a Company owned by the UK Department of Health.

AVP is administered at primovaccination in three doses with a booster dose after six months. The active ingredient is a sterile filtrate of an

aluminium potassium sulphate, sodium chloride and purified water. The preservative is thiomersal (0.005%). The vaccine is given by intramuscular injection and the primary course of four single injections (3 injections 3 weeks apart, followed by a 6-month dose) is followed by a single booster dose given once a year. During the Gulf War (1990–1991), UK military personnel were given AVP concomitantly with the pertussis vaccine
as an adjuvant to improve overall immune response and efficacy.

American anthrax vaccines

Main article:
Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed

The

bioterrorist
anthrax attack.

In 1997, the Clinton administration initiated the

GAO published reports that questioned the safety and efficacy of AVA, causing sometimes serious side effects.[26] A Congressional report also questioned the safety and efficacy of the vaccine and challenged the legality of mandatory inoculations.[27] Mandatory vaccinations were halted in 2004 by a formal legal injunction which made numerous substantive challenges regarding the vaccine and its safety.[28] After reviewing extensive scientific evidence, the FDA determined in 2005 that AVA is safe and effective as licensed for the prevention of anthrax, regardless of the route of exposure. In 2006, the Defense Department announced the reinstatement of mandatory anthrax vaccinations for more than 200,000 troops and defense contractors. The vaccinations are required for most U.S. military units and civilian contractors assigned to homeland bioterrorism defense or deployed in Iraq, Afghanistan or South Korea.[29]

Investigational anthrax vaccines

Anthrax toxin protective antigen (fragment) heptamer, Bacillus anthracis.

A number of experimental anthrax vaccines are undergoing pre-clinical testing, notably the Bacillus anthracis protective antigen—known as PA (see

Tween 80 emulsion (SLT). One dose of each formulation has provided significant protection (> 90%) against inhalational anthrax in rhesus macaques
.

References

  1. ISBN 978-3-030-58413-9
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  2. PMID 15977694
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  3. ISBN 978-0-7910-7302-5
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  4. ^ Cohn DV (December 18, 2006). "Pasteur". University of Louisville. Archived from the original on 2013-04-17. Retrieved 2007-12-02. Fortunately, Pasteur's colleagues Chamberlain [sic] and Roux followed up the results of a research physician Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint, who had reported a year earlier that carbolic-acid/heated anthrax serum would immunize against anthrax. These results were difficult to reproduce and discarded although, as it turned out, Toussaint had been on the right track. This led Pasteur and his assistants to substitute an anthrax vaccine prepared by a method similar to that of Toussaint and different from what Pasteur had announced.
  5. ^ Loir A (1938). "A l'ombre de Pasteur". Le mouvement sanitaire. pp. 18, 160.
  6. ISBN 0-691-01552-X
    .
  7. ^ Wolpert L (7 May 1995). "Experiments in Deceit". The New York Times.
  8. PMID 11647062
    .
  9. ^ Perutz MF (21 December 1995). "The Pioneer Defended". The New York Times Review of Books.
  10. ^ Geison GL, Perutz MF (4 April 1996). "Pasteur and the Culture Wars: An Exchange". The New York Times Review of Books.
  11. ^ Summers WC, Perutz MF (6 February 1997). "Pasteur's 'Private Science'". The New York Times Review of Books.
  12. PMID 1771966
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  13. ^ Turnbull P (4 March 1997). "Obituary: Max Sterne". The Independent.
  14. ^ a b c d e "Annex 5. Vaccines and therapeutic sera". Anthrax in Humans and Animals. 4th edition. World Health Organization. 2008.
  15. ^ Anaisimova, TI, Pimenov TV, Kozhukhov VV, et al: "Development of method for preparation and maintenance of the anthrax strain STI-1 and test strain Zenkovsky" In Salisbury Medical Bulletin, Special Supplement #87, June 1996, pg 122.
  16. ^ a b Shlyakov EN, Rubinstein E. "Human live anthrax vaccine in the former USSR". Vaccine. 12 (727): 1994.
  17. PMID 1692223
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  18. ^ Lesnyak OT, Saltykov RA (1970). "Comparative assessment of anthrax vaccine strains'". Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol. 47: 32.
  19. PMID 9178463
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  20. ^ Turnbull PC, Quinn CP, Hewson R, Stockbridge MC, Melling J (1990). "Protection conferred by microbially-supplemented UK and purified PA vaccines". Salisbury Medical Bulletin. 68: 89–91.
  21. PMID 11041763. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
    )
  22. PMID 10198799. Archived from the original
    on 9 January 2013.
  23. ^ Guillemin J (2005). Biological Weapons: From the Invention of State-sponsored Programs to Contemporary Bioterrorism. Columbia University Press. p. 98.
  24. ^ Anthrax and Anthrax Vaccine—Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. National Immunization Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. January 2006. Archived from the original on 24 August 2012.
  25. ^ a b "BioThrax Package Insert" (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
  26. ^ "GAO Anthrax Vaccine Report Search" (PDF). U.S. Government Accountability Office. Retrieved 2018-04-14.
  27. ^ "House Report 106-556 - THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE ANTHRAX VACCINE IMMUNIZATION PROGRAM: UNPROVEN FORCE PROTECTION". U.S. Government Publishing Office. 2000-04-03. Retrieved 2018-04-14.
  28. ^ "John Doe #1 v. Donald H. Rumsfeld, et al" (PDF). Military Vaccine (MILVAX) Agency. 2004-10-27. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 25, 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
  29. ^ Lee C (17 October 2006). "Mandatory Vaccine Article]—'Mandatory Anthrax Shots to Return". Washington Post.
  30. ^ Melman Y (27 January 2009). "Defense attempting to block report about anthrax trial". Haaretz Newspaper. Archived from the original on 15 April 2009. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
  31. PMID 22815438
    .

Further reading

External links

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