Anthropometry
Anthropometry (from
Today, anthropometry plays an important role in industrial design, clothing design, ergonomics and architecture where statistical data about the distribution of body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products. Changes in lifestyles, nutrition, and ethnic composition of populations lead to changes in the distribution of body dimensions (e.g. the rise in obesity) and require regular updating of anthropometric data collections.
History
The history of anthropometry includes and spans various concepts, both
, and other factors.At various times in history, applications of anthropometry have ranged from accurate scientific description and epidemiological analysis to rationales for eugenics and overtly racist social movements.[citation needed] One of its misuses was the discredited pseudoscience, phrenology.
Individual variation
Auxologic
Auxologic is a broad term covering the study of all aspects of
Height
The average height in genetically and environmentally
In the most extreme population comparisons, for example, the average
The age range where most females stop growing is 15–18 years and the age range where most males stop growing is 18–21 years.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12]
Weight
Organs
Adult
Size of the human stomach varies significantly in adults, with one study showing volumes ranging from 520 cm3 (32 cu in) to 1,536 cm3 (93.7 cu in) and weights ranging from 77 grams (2.7 oz) to 453 grams (16.0 oz).[17]
Aesthetic
Human beauty and physical attractiveness have been preoccupations throughout history which often intersect with anthropometric standards. Cosmetology, facial symmetry, and waist–hip ratio are three such examples where measurements are commonly thought to be fundamental.
Evolutionary science
Anthropometric studies today are conducted to investigate the evolutionary significance of differences in body proportion between populations whose ancestors lived in different environments. Human populations exhibit climatic variation patterns similar to those of other large-bodied mammals, following Bergmann's rule, which states that individuals in cold climates will tend to be larger than ones in warm climates, and Allen's rule, which states that individuals in cold climates will tend to have shorter, stubbier limbs than those in warm climates.
On a microevolutionary level, anthropologists use anthropometric variation to reconstruct small-scale population history. For instance, John Relethford's studies of early 20th-century anthropometric data from Ireland show that the geographical patterning of body proportions still exhibits traces of the invasions by the English and Norse centuries ago.
Similarly, anthropometric indices, namely comparison of the
Measuring instruments
3D body scanners
Today anthropometry can be performed with
Baropodographic
Baropodographic devices fall into two main categories: (i)
The spatial and temporal resolutions of the images generated by commercial pedobarographic systems range from approximately 3 to 10 mm and 25 to 500 Hz, respectively. Sensor technology limits finer resolution. Such resolutions yield a contact area of approximately 500 sensors (for a typical adult human foot with surface area of approximately 100 cm2).[31] For a stance phase duration of approximately 0.6 seconds during normal walking,[32] approximately 150,000 pressure values, depending on the hardware specifications, are recorded for each step.
Neuroimaging
Direct measurements involve examinations of brains from corpses, or more recently, imaging techniques such as
Epidemiology and medical anthropology
Anthropometric measurements also have uses in epidemiology and medical anthropology, for example in helping to determine the relationship between various body measurements (height, weight, percentage body fat, etc.) and medical outcomes. Anthropometric measurements are frequently used to diagnose malnutrition in resource-poor clinical settings.
Forensics and criminology
Forensic anthropologists study the human skeleton in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of a decedent through various skeletal analyses that produce a biological profile. Forensic anthropologists utilize the
One part of a biological profile is a person's ancestral affinity.[33] People with significant European or Middle Eastern ancestry generally have little to no prognathism; a relatively long and narrow face; a prominent brow ridge that protrudes forward from the forehead; a narrow, tear-shaped nasal cavity; a "silled" nasal aperture; tower-shaped nasal bones; a triangular-shaped palate; and an angular and sloping eye orbit shape. People with considerable African ancestry typically have a broad and round nasal cavity; no dam or nasal sill; Quonset hut-shaped nasal bones; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area (prognathism); a rectangular-shaped palate; and a square or rectangular eye orbit shape. A relatively small prognathism often characterizes people with considerable East Asian ancestry; no nasal sill or dam; an oval-shaped nasal cavity; tent-shaped nasal bones; a horseshoe-shaped palate; and a rounded and non-sloping eye orbit shape.[34] Many of these characteristics are only a matter of frequency among those of particular ancestries: their presence or absence of one or more does not automatically classify an individual into an ancestral group.
Ergonomics
Today, ergonomics professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment, systems and working methods to improve comfort, health, safety, and productivity. This includes
Biometrics
Biometrics refers to the identification of humans by their characteristics or traits. Biometrics is used in computer science as a form of identification and access control.[37] It is also used to identify individuals in groups that are under surveillance. Biometric identifiers are the distinctive, measurable characteristics used to label and describe individuals.[38] Biometric identifiers are often categorized as physiological versus behavioral characteristics.[39] Subclasses include dermatoglyphics and soft biometrics.
United States military research
The US Military has conducted over 40 anthropometric surveys of U.S. Military personnel between 1945 and 1988, including the 1988 Army Anthropometric Survey (ANSUR) of men and women with its 240 measures. Statistical data from these surveys encompasses over 75,000 individuals.[40]
Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource Project — CAESAR
CAESAR began in 1997 as a partnership between government (represented by the
The project collected and organized data on 2,400 U.S. & Canadian and 2,000 European civilians and a database was developed. This database records the anthropometric variability of men and women, aged 18–65, of various weights, ethnic groups, gender, geographic regions, and socio-economic status. The study was conducted from April 1998 to early 2000 and included three scans per person in a standing pose, full-coverage pose and relaxed seating pose.
Data collection methods were standardized and documented so that the database can be consistently expanded and updated. High-resolution measurements of body surfaces were made using 3D Surface Anthropometry. This technology can capture hundreds of thousands of points in three dimensions on the human body surface in a few seconds. It has many advantages over the old measurement system using tape measures, anthropometers, and other similar instruments. It provides detail about the surface shape as well as 3D locations of measurements relative to each other and enables easy transfer to
Demographic data such as age, ethnic group, gender, geographic region, education level, and present occupation, family income and more were also captured.[42][43]
Fashion design
Scientists working for private companies and government agencies conduct anthropometric studies to determine a range of sizes for clothing and other items. For just one instance, measurements of the foot are used in the manufacture and sale of
See also
- Allometry – Study of the relationship of body size to shape, anatomy, physiology, and behavior
- Anthropometric cosmetology – Medical practice to correct deformity
- Biometrics – Metrics related to human characteristics
- Body shape – General shape of a human body
- Body proportions – Proportions of the human body in art
- Artistic canons of body proportions – Criteria used in formal figurative art
- Body proportions – Proportions of the human body in art
- Cephalometry – Study and measurement of the head
- Chironomia – art of hand gesturing in oratory
- Craniometry – Measurement of the human cranium
- Dermatoglyphics – [pseudo-]scientific study of finger- and toeprints
- Genetic fingerprinting– Technique used to identify individuals via DNA characteristics
- Guidonian hand – Medieval mnemonic device for choral singers
- Digit ratio – Ratio of lengths of fingers
- Eigenface – Set of eigenvectors used in the computer vision problem of human face recognition
- Human height – Aspect of human growth
- Human weight– Person's mass or weight
- Kinanthropometry – Study of human growth and performance
- Morphometrics – Quantitative study of size and shape
- Osteometry – Study and measurement of the skeleton
- Palmistry – Foretelling the future through the study of the palm
- Phrenology – Pseudoscientific study of human characteristics according to shape of the skull
- Physiognomy – Assessment of a person's character or personality from their outer appearance
- Reflexology – Alternative medical practice involving pressure to parts of the body
- Samuel George Morton – American physician and naturalist (1799–1851)
- Single transverse palmar crease – Crease across the palm of the hand
- Statistical shape analysis – Analysis of geometric properties
- World Engineering Anthropometry Resource – International not-for-profit group
References
- ^ Baten, Joerg; Komlos, John (2004). "Looking Backward and Looking Forward: Anthropometric Research and the Development of Social Science History". Social Science History. 28: 191–210 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ^ Ganong, William F. (Lange Medical, 2001) Review of Medical Physiology (pp. 392–397)
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- ^ "Shortest man world record: It's official! Chandra Bahadur Dangi is smallest adult of all time". Guinness World Records. 26 February 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-02-28.
- ^ "Tallest Man Ever". Guinness World Records. 27 June 1940.
- ^ "2 to 20 years: Girls Stature-for-age and Weight-for-age percentiles" (PDF). CDC. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ "2 to 20 years: Boys Stature-for-age and Weight-for-age percentiles" (PDF). CDC. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ "Growing Taller –At What Age do Men Stop Growing?". Upsmash. 20 July 2017. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ Aronson, Anna. "Does Your Height Increase After You're 21?". Livestrong. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ Georgoff, Victoria (31 July 2015). "When do girls stop growing?". Care.com. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ "Physical changes in puberty: girls and boys". raisingchildren.net.au. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
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- ^ Chivers, Tom (2009-09-24). "Human extremes: the tallest, shortest, heaviest and lightest people ever". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2009-09-28. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
- ^ Quilty-Harper, Conrad; Blenkinsop, Andrew; Kinross, David; Palmer, Dan (2012-06-21). "The world's fattest countries: how do you compare?". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2012-06-21. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
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- ^ Morber, Jenny (2013-04-01). "The average human vagina". Double X Science. Archived from the original on 2018-11-04. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
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- ^ Lord M 1981. Foot pressure measurement: a review of methodology. J Biomed Eng 3 91–9.
- ^ Gefen A 2007. Pressure-sensing devices for assessment of soft tissue loading under bony prominences: technological concepts and clinical utilization. Wounds 19 350–62.
- ^ Cobb J, Claremont DJ 1995. Transducers for foot pressure measurement: survey of recent developments. Med Biol Eng Comput 33 525–32.
- ^ Rosenbaum D, Becker HP 1997. Plantar pressure distribution measurements: technical background and clinical applications. J Foot Ankle Surg 3 1–14.
- ^ Orlin MN, McPoil TG 2000. Plantar pressure assessment. Phys Ther 80 399–409.
- ^ Birtane M, Tuna H 2004. The evaluation of plantar pressure distribution in obese and non-obese adults. Clin Biomech 19 1055–9.
- ^ Blanc Y, Balmer C, Landis T, Vingerhoets F 1999. Temporal parameters and patterns of the foot roll during walking: normative data for healthy adults. Gait & Posture 10 97–108.
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- ^ Forensic Anthropology – Ancestry Archived 2012-02-06 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ International Ergonomics Association. What is Ergonomics Archived May 20, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Website. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
- ^ "Home Page of Environmental Ergonomics Society". Environmental-ergonomics.org. Retrieved 2012-04-06.
- ^ "Biometrics: Overview". Biometrics.cse.msu.edu. 6 September 2007. Archived from the original on 2012-01-07. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
- S2CID 9321766. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-03-30. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
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- ^ U.S. Military personnel Archived October 16, 2004, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ CIVILIAN AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN SURFACE ANTHROPOMETRY RESOURCE (CAESAR) FINAL REPORT, VOLUME I: SUMMARY
- ^ "CAESAR Fact Sheet". www.sae.org.
- ^ Robinette, Kathleen M, Daanen, Hein A M, Precision of the CAESAR scan-extracted measurements, Applied Ergonomics, vol 37, issue 3, May 2007, pp. 259–265.
- ^ Goonetilleke, R. S., Ho, Edmond Cheuk Fan, and So, R. H. Y. (1997). "Foot Anthropometry in Hong Kong". Proceedings of the ASEAN 97 Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1997. pp. 81–88.
Further reading
- Anthropometric Survey of Army Personnel: Methods and Summary Statistics 1988 Archived 2022-06-21 at the Wayback Machine
- ISO 7250: Basic human body measurements for technological design, International Organization for Standardization, 1998.
- ISO 8559: Garment construction and anthropometric surveys — Body dimensions, International Organization for Standardization, 1989.
- ISO 15535: General requirements for establishing anthropometric databases, International Organization for Standardization, 2000.
- ISO 15537: Principles for selecting and using test persons for testing anthropometric aspects of industrial products and designs, International Organization for Standardization, 2003.
- ISO 20685: 3-D scanning methodologies for internationally compatible anthropometric databases, International Organization for Standardization, 2005.
- Pheasant, Stephen (1986). Bodyspace : anthropometry, ergonomics, and design. London; Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-85066-352-5. (A classic review of human body sizes.)
- Redman, Samuel (2016). Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674660410.
External links
- Anthropometry at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- Anthropometry and Biomechanics at NASA
- Anthropometry data at faculty of Industrial Design Engineering at Delft University of Technology
- Manual for Obtaining Anthropometric Measurements Free Full Text
- Prepared for the US Access Board: Anthropometry of Wheeled Mobility Project Report Free Full Text
- Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource Project—CAESAR at SAE International