Anti-Greek sentiment
You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (December 2023) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
|
Part of a series on |
Discrimination |
---|
Anti-Greek sentiment (also known as Hellenophobia
Historic
Ancient Rome
In the mid-Republican period Rome phil-Hellenic and anti-Hellenic Roman intellectuals were involved in a conflict over Greek influence. One author explains, "the relationship of Romans to Greek culture was frequently ambiguous: they admired it as superior and adopted its criteria, while they remained skeptical of some aspects; hence they adapted it selectively according to their own purposes."[9] An anti-Hellenic movement emerged in reaction to the primacy of Greek led by the conservative and reactionary statesman Cato the Elder (234-149 BCE), who was the first to write a Roman history in Latin, and was prominent for his anti-Hellenic views.[10][11] He saw Hellenism as a threat to Roman culture, but did not find wide support, especially in the upper class.[12] However, Erich S. Gruen argued that Cato's "anti-Greek 'pronouncements' reflect deliberate posturing and do not represent 'the core of Catonian thought'."[13] The prominent philosopher and politician Cicero (106–43 BCE) was "highly ambivalent" about Greeks,[14] and practiced "anti-Greek slur".[15] The first-second century poet Juvenal was another major anti-Hellenic figure.[16][17]
Latin West
Following the
East Sicily and Malta
In
Modern
Albania
In the interwar period (1918–39), the Albanian government closed down Greek schools as part of its policies of assimilation.[19]
During the Communist rule in Albania (1944–92), the government restricted the use of Greek language and Greek names by the country's Greek minority in an attempt of forced assimilation.[20] Anti-Greek sentiment dominated the thinking of Enver Hoxha, the communist leader of Albania, during the Greek Civil War.[21] These practices continued, at the very least, until Hoxha's death in 1985.
In post-Communist Albania, "there are no significant explicitly racist or chauvinist political parties", although, according to James Pettifer, "there are many individual politicians who adhere to very strong anti-Greek views, which in turn affects the orientation of virtually all ethnic Albanian political parties."[22] In a 2013 poll in Albania, Greece topped the list of countries perceived to be a threat to Albania (18.5%), although the plurality of respondents (46.4%) agreed with the statement "No country is a threat to Albania".[23]
Australia
The word "
Bulgaria
In 1906, during the Macedonian Struggle, anti-Greek rallies and violent attacks took place in a number of Bulgarian cities. In Plovdiv, Greek Orthodox churches and schools, Greek-owned properties were looted and plundered. In Pomorie (Anchialos) the Greek population was expelled after the city was set up on fire and up to 110 Greeks were killed. Pogroms also took place in Varna, Burgas and other locations.[28] Following the pogroms, around 20,000 Greeks fled Bulgaria.[29]
Canada
On August 2–5, 1918, a three-day anti-Greek riot occurred in Toronto. "Mobs of up to 5,000 people, led by war veterans returned from Europe, marched through the city's main streets waging pitched battles with law enforcement officers and destroying every Greek business they came across." The consequence was damages of $100,000 to Greek businesses and private property.[30]
Italy
When the
North Macedonia
The
The main opposition party of the Republic of North Macedonia,
Romania
At its inception Romanian national historiography was heavily influenced by romanticism. This led to a reconsideration of the role played by the
During the course of the Macedonian Struggle, Romania founded the Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society which conducted ethnographic expeditions to Macedonia, Epirus and Thessaly. The Society later took up the role of representing Romania interests in the region. The propagation of Romanian nationalist ideals among the Aromanian communities, created a rift between the two countries known as the Aromanian question. Another important issue was the status of the inheritances of Greeks in Romania. In 1892, Romania refused to hand over the property of the recently deceased Greek expatriate Konstantinos Zappas to the Greek state citing an article of the Romanian constitution forbidding foreign nationals from owning agricultural land. The Trikoupis government then recalled its ambassador in Bucharest, Romania followed suit thus severing diplomatic relations between the countries. Diplomatic relations were restored in July 1896, in response to a rise of Bulgarian komitadji activity in Macedonia. In 1905, the two countries exchanged accusations regarding the Aromanian question. Romania claimed that Greek armed bands targeted ethnic Romanians in Macedonia, whereas Greece accused Romania of trying to create a false equation between Aromanians and Romanians.[39]
Hellenophobic articles began appearing in the Romanian press. On 2 August 1905, the Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society organized an anti-Greek protest in Bucharest, attended by army officers, students and ethnic Aromanians. After decrying Greek war crimes in Macedonia, the organizers called for a boycott of Greek products and services. Rioting was prevented by a large force of Romanian gendarmerie. On the same day a Greek owned cafe in Bucharest was vandalized and its owner beaten. Several days later three editors of the Greek-language newspaper Patris were expelled from the country for sedition. On 13 August, protesters burnt a Greek flag in Giurgiu. An official remonstrance by the Greek ambassador Tombazis was rebutted leading to a mutual withdrawal of embassies on 15 September. In November, the Romanian government allocated funding for the creation of armed Aromanian bands in Macedonia, a parallel motion closed numerous Greek schools in the country. In February 1906, six leading members of the Greek community were expelled from the country, citing their alleged funding of Greek bands in Macedonia. In July 1906, the Greek government officially severed diplomatic relations with Romania. In 1911, Greek prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos used the occasion of the Italo-Turkish War to improve relations with Bulgaria and Romania, restoring diplomatic relations with the latter.[39]
Soviet Union
Between 1919 and 1924 around 47,000 Greeks emigrated from Russia to Greece as a result of the official and unofficial anti-Greek sentiment in Russia, which in its turn was a result of the Greek intervention in the Black Sea region in the Russian Civil War against the Bolsheviks.[40]
Tens of thousands of Greeks were deported to the remote parts of the Soviet Union during World War II in the
Turkey
Anti-Greek sentiment is "deeply rooted" in the Turkish public.[41] A 2011 survey in Turkey revealed that 67% of respondents had unfavorable views toward Greeks, though only 6% said they saw Greece as their main enemy in a poll carried out that same year.[42] Despite this, according to political scientist Emre Erdogan, Greece remains one of the "eternal enemies of Turkey", along with Armenia.[43] Journalist Dr. Cenk Saraçoğlu of Ankara University argues that anti-Greek attitudes in Turkey "are no longer constructed and shaped by social interactions between the 'ordinary people' [...] Rather, the Turkish media and state promote and disseminate an overtly anti-Greek discourse."[44] On the other hand, Turkish political scientist Bahar Rumelili wrote in 2007:[45]
Both the Turkish government and the Turkish military have made public statements that Turkey no longer sees Greece as its rival. While a small minority in Turkish society maintains its anti-Greek sentiments and actions, there is a growing liking for Greek society and culture and an increasing awareness of the Greek heritage in Turkey.
In 1821 Greeks of Constantinople were massacred in response to the Greek War of Independence, while Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople was hanged.
During and following World War I, almost all of the Greek population of Anatolia was either exterminated by the Ottoman government or later transferred to Greece as part of a population exchange based on religious affiliation.
In September 1955 the Turkish government sponsored
In 1999 Turkey "was again swept by a wave of anti-Greek sentiment, encouraged by the Turkish government"[50] following the capture of the Kurdistan Workers' Party leader Abdullah Öcalan in Nairobi, Kenya who was initially hiding in the Greek embassy.[51] However, as a result of the "earthquake diplomacy" and the subsequent rapprochement efforts between Greece and Turkey, the public perception of Greece as their main enemy decreased in Turkey from 29% in 2001 to 16.9% in 2004.[52]
The Grey Wolves, a far-right organization associated with the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), routinely demonstrate outside the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in the Phanar district and burn the Patriarch in effigy.[53] In October 2005 they staged a rally and proceeding to the gate they laid a black wreath, chanting "Patriarch Leave" and "Patriarchate to Greece", inaugurating the campaign for the collection of signatures to oust the Ecumenical Patriarchate from Constantinople.[54] As of 2006 the Grey Wolves claimed to have collected more than 5 million signatures for the withdrawal of the Patriarch[55] and called on the Turkish government to have the patriarch deported to Greece.[56]
United States
In the early 20th century
In
In December 2014
Western Europe
As a result of the Greek government-debt crisis, starting in 2010, anti-Greek sentiments grew in some European countries, especially in Germany.[64][65][66] A 2014 study found, "An anti-Greek sentiment evolved and spread among German citizens and solidarity for crisis-hit Greece was mostly rejected."[67] In 2012 Pew Research Center found, "Among the major European countries, Greece is clearly the least popular. And its reputation is slipping. In no country, other than Greece itself, is there a majority with a favorable view of Greece." Only 27% of respondents in Germany viewed Greece favorably.[68]
Hostile and unfavorable views towards Greece and Greeks were especially pronounced in the tabloid press. A 2013 study found that Western European news sources "indicate bias against Greece in financial crisis coverage" and "include stereotypes, the recommendation of austerity as a punishment, morality tales, an absence of solidarity, and fear mongering."[69] The popular German tabloid Bild "published numerous reports that implicitly and explicitly constituted the myth of the corrupt and lazy Greeks in comparison to the hard-working Germans."[67] Dutch TV producer Ingeborg Beugel (nl) claimed that "the [anti-Greek] propaganda of the mainstream media provides Europe and the Netherlands with a convenient scapegoat to exploit."[70]
German politicians, such as the former Minister for Foreign Affairs Guido Westerwelle and former Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, publicly criticized the anti-Greek sentiment in their country and called for solidarity with Greece.[71][72][73]
See also
- Anti-Eastern Orthodox sentiment
- Giaour
References
- ISBN 9780199534067.
- ^ Bourdon, Georges [in French] (1920). Hellas and Unredeemed Hellenism: The Policy of Victory in the East and Its Results. New York: American-Hellenic Society. p. 22.
Since in Asia Minor, as well as at Constantinople, Turkophilism carries with it as corollaries Hellenophobia and Armenophobia...
- ^ Mitropoulou, Eirini (12 December 2014). "Βαρτάν Βοσκανιάν: Αρμενοφοβία και ελληνοφοβία ζουν ακόμη στην Τουρκία". To Vima (in Greek).
- ISBN 978-0521795524.
the much-maligned Turkish strain in Greek culture becomes a means of asserting difference, but always at the price of ridicule (not to speak of charges of anti-Hellenism!).
- ^ Ferentinou, Ariana (3 July 2011). "Shifting perceptions of Greece in EU". Hürriyet Daily News.
- ISBN 9780230551992.
...mishellenism or hatred toward the Greeks...
- ^ Valaoritis, Nanos (2012-03-22). "Greece in a Time of Crisis". bookbar.gr. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
Mishellenism and anti-Semitism are connected phenomena...
- ISBN 978-3643905154.
In reaction to the Greek-basing and doubts about Greek future in the Eurozone...
- ISBN 9780521110167.
- ISBN 9781444317404.
- ISBN 9781599424231.
- ISBN 9781438110271.
- JSTOR 311309.
- ISBN 9780691125985.
- ISBN 978-0-8122-0346-2.
- ISBN 978-1405199650.
- ISBN 9780500277287.
- ^ Rowe, John Gordon (1959). "The Papacy and the Greeks (1122–1153)". Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture. 28 (2): 120.
- ^ "Albania > Greeks". Minority Rights Group International. Archived from the original on November 15, 2014. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
- ISBN 9781573560191.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-7656-0528-3. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2014-11-12.
- ^ Cela, Alba; Lleshaj, Sashenka (March 2014). "Albanian-Greek elations from the eyes of the Albanian public perceptions 2013" (PDF). Friedrich Ebert Foundation. Tirana: Albanian Institute for International Studies. p. 31. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 15, 2014.
- Green Left Weekly.
- ^ Yiannakis, John N. (1996). "Kalgoorlie alchemy: xenophobia, patriotism and the 1916 anti-Greek riots". Early Days. 11 (2): 199–211.
- ^ "Aren't you sick of being called a WOG?". Greek Reporter. 4 February 2013.
- ISBN 9781134794324.
- ^ Kotzabassi Maria, "Persecution of Greek populations at the Bulgarian coast of the Black Sea, 1906", Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Black Sea
- S2CID 163501883.
- Gallant, Thomas W.; Treheles, George; Vitopoulos, Michael. "The 1918 Anti-Greek Riot in Toronto" (PDF). York University. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2015-11-29.
- ^ Minority Rights Group International - Italy - Greek-speakers
- ISBN 9781317906230.
After persisting unresolved for ten years the 'name issue' has also been reflected in the growth of a mirroring nationalist anti-Greek movement in the Republic of Macedonia.
- ISBN 9780300102680.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-8557-0.
- ISBN 9780691043562.
- ISBN 978-0786423231.
- ISBN 9780810862951.
...Gruevski, riding the waves of anti-Greek nationalism.
- ^ Jakov Marusic, Sinisa (28 June 2012). "Greece: Macedonia Waging 'Anti-Greek' Propaganda War". Skopje: BIRN. Balkan Insight.
- ^ .
- ISBN 9780313274978.
- ISBN 9780786450039.
- ^ "Turkish citizens mistrust foreigners, opinion poll says". Hürriyet Daily News. 2 May 2011.
- ^ "Why Turks Feel Threatened by the US". Washington, DC: World Public Opinion. 5 September 2007. Archived from the original on 2014-10-20. Retrieved 2014-10-17.
- ISBN 9780857719102.
- S2CID 155052759.
- ISBN 9780876091104.
Nevertheless, violent and highly visible Turkish eruptions of anti-Greek sentiment, like the 1955 Istanbul riots...
- ISBN 9780857457028.
Anti-Greek sentiment came to a head during the government-sponsored riots of 5–6 September 1955
- ^ "Denying Human Rights and Ethnic Identity: The Greeks of Turkey" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 1992. pp. 10–11. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 12, 2014.
- ^ "Exhibition marks 1964 expulsion of İstanbul Greeks". Today's Zaman. 16 March 2014.
- ISBN 9780674024465.
- ^ Morris, Chris (16 December 2004). "Athens and Ankara strengthen ties". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014.
- ISSN 1303-5754. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2014-10-13.
- ^ "The Violations of the Human Rights of the Greek Minority in Turkey: Atrocities and persecutions 1923 - 2009" (PDF). cpolitan.gr. Athens: The Constantinopolitan Society. 2009. p. 31. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 11, 2014.
- ^ Alexopoulos, Dimitris (28 October 2005). "By the Grey Wolves Tension at the Patriarchate". Hellenic Radio.
- ^ Spyroglou, Valentine (April 2006). "A Populist Surge Splits Turkey From Its Traditional Allies". Defense & Foreign Affairs Strategic Policy: 13.
- ISBN 978-0415843737.
- ^ ISBN 978-0275992941.
- ISBN 9780226468570.
- ^ Gerontakis, Steven (November 2012). "AHEPA vs. the KKK: Greek-Americans on the Path to Whiteness" (PDF). University of North Carolina at Asheville. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 November 2014.
- ^ "Mapping Segregation Project". Montgomery Planning. Retrieved 2022-05-05.
- ^ Aravosis, John (2 December 2014). "MTV reality show suggests Greek-Americans are in-bred, violent". americablog.com.
- ^ Zampathas, Olympia (3 December 2014). "Greeks Call to Cancel how MTV sees "Growing Up Greek"". xpress.sfsu.edu. San Francisco State University. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
- ^ Papapostolou, Anastasios (4 December 2014). "AHEPA Calls MTV to Cancel "Growing Up Greek" Show; Asks Sponsors to Withdraw". Greek Reporter.
- ^ Harman, Sarah (19 May 2010). "Greek tourism put to the test by debt crisis". Deutsche Welle.
Many Germans weren't afraid to voice anti-Greek sentiments.
- ^ Connolly, Kate (29 April 2010). "EU debt crisis: German papers whip up anti-Greece fury". The Guardian.
- ^ Weisenthal, Joe (5 February 2014). "Anti-Greek Resentment Still Playing Well In Germany". Business Insider.
- ^ S2CID 144544544.
- ^ "European Unity on the Rock: Chapter 4. Views of EU Countries and Leaders". Pew Research Center. 29 May 2012. Archived from the original on 15 November 2014.
- ^ Pavlakis, Eleni (1 April 2013). "European Disintegration: Anti-Greek Bias in the Eurozone Crisis". CUREJ: College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences. p. 24.
- ^ Beugel, Ingeborg (21 June 2011). "The anti-Greece campaign of the international media". ROAR Magazine.
- ^ "Enough 'Greek bashing' says German FM". Kathimerini. 31 August 2012.
- ^ Allen, Patrick (6 September 2011). "Germany Shouldn't Tolerate 'Greece Bashing': Schroeder". CNBC.
- ^ Dabilis, Andy (17 August 2012). "Schroeder, Chatzimarkakis Want Greek-Bashing To Stop". Greek Reporter.