Anti-Qing sentiment
Anti-Qing sentiment (
The rallying slogan of anti-Qing activists was "Fǎn Qīng fù Míng" (simplified Chinese: 反清复明; traditional Chinese: 反清復明; literally: "Oppose Qing and restore Ming"), related to the Boxer Rebellion slogan "Revive the Qing and destroy the foreigners" ("扶清滅洋 fú Qīng miè yáng").
In the broadest sense, an anti-Qing activist was anyone who engaged in anti-Manchu direct action. This included people from many mainstream political movements and uprisings, such as Taiping Rebellion, the Xinhai Revolution, the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, the Revive China Society, the Tongmenghui, the Panthay Rebellion, White Lotus Rebellion, and others.
Ming loyalism in the early Qing
Muslim Ming loyalists
The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640–1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing.[9]
Koxinga
The Ming loyalist general
Joseon
In 1623 King Gwanghaegun was deposed and replaced by King Injo (r. 1623–1649), who banished Gwanghaegun's supporters. Reversing his predecessor's foreign policy, the new king decided to support the Ming openly, but a rebellion led by military commander Yi Gwal erupted in 1624 and wrecked Joseon's military defenses in the north. Even after the rebellion had been suppressed, King Injo had to devote military forces to ensure the stability of the capital, leaving fewer soldiers to defend the northern borders.[10]
The Manchus invaded Korea twice, in 1627 and 1636, eventually forcing Joseon to sever its ties with the Ming and instead to become a tributary of the Manchus. However, popular opposition to the Manchus remained in Korea. Joseon continued to use the Ming calendar rather than the Qing calendar, and Koreans continued to wear Ming-style clothing and hairstyles, rather than the Manchu queue. After the fall of the Ming dynasty, Joseon Koreans saw themselves as continuing the traditions of Neo-Confucianism.[11]
Anti-Qing rebellions
Mongol Rebellions
The Mongols under Qing rule were divided into three primary groups – the Inner Mongols, the Outer Khalkha Mongols, and the Eastern Oirat Mongols.
The Inner Mongolian
The Khalkha Mongols were more reluctant to come under Qing rule, only submitting to the
During the Xinhai Revolution, the Outer Khalkha Mongols staged an uprising against the Qing and expelled the Manchu Ambans.
Taiping Rebellion
Genocide and extermination of Manchus
Driven by their fierce hatred of Manchus, the Taiping launched a massive genocide campaign against the Manchus to exterminate their entire race.
In every area they captured, the Taiping immediately rushed into the Manchu fort in order to kill all the Manchus. One Qing loyalist observed in the province of Hunan of the genocidal massacres committed by Taiping forces against the Manchus and wrote of the "pitiful Manchus", the Manchu men, women and children who were exterminated by the Taiping with their swords. Once Hefei capitulated, the Taiping forces rushed into the Manchu quarter shouting "Kill the demons (Manchus)!" while exterminating all the Manchus living there. Nanking's entire Manchu population was also annihilated.[12]
After conquering Nanjing, Taiping forces stormed the Manchu fort, killing some 40,000 Manchus, which was the city's entire population of Manchus.[13] On 27 October 1853 they crossed the Yellow River in T'sang-chou and massacred about 10,000 Manchus.[14] In Shaoxing 2,000 Manchus were also killed.[15]
Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
When news reached their ears that the Taipings succeeded in conquered Nanjing, the anti-Manchu Cantonese in the Pearl River Delta saw this as an opportunity and possibility of overthrowing the Manchus to restore Han rule over China, and began the Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856). These rebels were called 'Red Turbans' because of the red headscarves they wore.[16]
The Red Turban Rebellion was initially quite successful as the rebels gained control of a considerable amount of territory. In July 1854, Foshan was occupied by the rebel.[17] In a desperate attempt to the eradicate any facilities which may support the Red Turbans, the Qing forces burnt the northern suburbs in Guangzhou to prevent it from sheltering the rebels. The rebellion was ultimately defeated in 1856, which was followed by the mass execution of suspected sympathisers and participants of the rebellion.
Panthay Rebellion
The Panthay Rebellion leader Du Wenxiu declared his intention of overthrowing the Qing and driving the Manchus out of China. The rebellion started after massacres of Hui perpetrated by the Manchu authorities.[18] Du used anti-Manchu rhetoric in his rebellion against the Qing, calling for Han to join the Hui to overthrow the Manchu Qing after 200 years of their rule.[19][20] Du invited the fellow Hui Muslim leader Ma Rulong to join him in driving the Manchu Qing out and "recover China".[21] For his war against Manchu "oppression", Du "became a Muslim hero", while Ma Rulong defected to the Qing.[22] On multiple occasions Kunming was attacked and sacked by Du Wenxiu's forces.[23][24] His capital was Dali.[25] The revolt ended in 1873.[26] Du Wenxiu is regarded as a hero by the present day government of China.[27]
Tibetan rebellions
Tibetan Buddhist Lamas rebelled against the Qing at Batang during the
Overthrow of the Qing
The
Xinhai revolutionaries launched mass massacres against the Manchus across Chinese cities.
On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-Sen was sworn in as the first president of China. The Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 January 1912, and on 12 February 1912, the emperor of China, 6-year-old Puyi, and Empress Dowager Longyu signed an edict of abdication, ending 268 years of Qing rule and almost 2,000 years of dynastic rule in China.[37] Incentives for Manchu nobles were discontinued by the government in 1924.
Texts which contained anti-Manchu content were banned by President
See also
References
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- ^ "满清入关时设计的一条政策,导致200年后江南满人被屠杀殆尽?". Archived from the original on 2021-06-02. Retrieved 2019-09-09.
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- ^ Backhouse, Sir Edmund; Otway, John; Bland, Percy (1914). Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking: (from the 16th to the 20th Century) (reprint ed.). Houghton Mifflin. p. 209.
- ^ The Atlantic, Volume 112. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p. 779. Archived from the original on 2022-10-12. Retrieved 2019-05-10.
- ^ The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 112. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p. 779. Archived from the original on 2022-10-12. Retrieved 2019-05-10.
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Sources
- Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Ann; Palais, James B. (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Press. ISBN 978-0-618-13384-0.
- Holcombe, Charles (2011). A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51595-5.
External links
- Media related to Anti-Qing sentiment at Wikimedia Commons