Anti-Ukrainian sentiment
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Discrimination |
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Anti-Ukrainian sentiment, Ukrainophobia or anti-Ukrainianism is animosity towards
Modern scholars divide anti-Ukrainian sentiment into two types. One type consists of discrimination against Ukrainians based on their ethnic or cultural origin, typical forms of
Ukrainophobic stereotypes
Within Russian nationalist narratives and propaganda, Ukrainophobic stereotypes range from mockery to ascribing negative traits to the whole Ukrainian nation and people of Ukrainian descent include:
- Ukrainians eat lots of salo.[3]
- Ukrainians are greedy.[3]
- Ukrainians are sly and cunning.[3]
- Ukrainians are dishonest.[3]
- Ukrainians are not educated and have no culture.[3]
- Ukrainians are antisemites.[3]
- Ukrainian language is a broken dialect of Russian.[4]
- Ukrainian nationalism is closely associated with neo-Nazism. This is a recurring theme in Russian propaganda within the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War, usually in the following narratives:
- Ukrainians are sympathizers of nationalist leaders Banderovtsy) and Roman Shukhevych, who collaborated with Nazi Germany in World War II.[5] Despite the stereotype, 4.5 million Ukrainians served the Red Army during World War II against Nazi Germany.[6] Ukrainians were also considered Untermenschen by the Nazis for being Slavic and treated accordingly.[7]
- Ukrainians are sympathizers of nationalist leader Ivan Mazepa, who wish to betray Bohdan Khmelnytsky's cause.
- The whole of Ukrainian society is dominated by neo-Nazis and ultranationalists who persecuted ethnic Russians and Russian-speakers; this stereotype was used by the Russian government to justify invading Ukraine in 2022, with the claimed goal of "demilitarisation" and "denazification."
- Ukrainians are sympathizers of nationalist leaders
History
In the Russian Empire
The rise and spread of Ukrainian self-awareness around the time of the
Besides the
Soviet Union
"In their time
Marko Kropyvnytsky, Ivan Tobilevych, Mykola Sadovsky, Maria Zankovetska, Panas Saksahansky all should have been hanged. Then no one would even have heard about Ukraine."
—Mikhail Artemyevich Muravyov, Red Commander[8]
Under
In 1929 Mykola Kulish wrote a theatrical play "Myna Mazailo" in which the author cleverly describes the cultural situation in Ukraine. There was supposedly no anti-Ukrainian sentiment within the Soviet government, which began to repress all aspects of Ukrainian culture and language, a policy which was contrary to the ideology of Proletarian Internationalism.
In 1930 the
During the Great Purge a whole generation of Ukrainian poets, writers and interpreters was prosecuted and executed, which further gained its own name of Executed Renaissance.[10]
During the Soviet era, the population of Ukraine was reduced by the artificial famine which was called the Holodomor in 1932–33 along with the population of other nearby agrarian areas of the USSR. Collectivization in the Soviet Union and a lack of favored industries were the primary contributors to famine mortality (52% of excess deaths), and evidence shows that ethnic Ukrainians and Germans were targeted.[11] According to a Centre for Economic Policy Research paper published in 2021 by Andrei Markevich, Natalya Naumenko, and Nancy Qian, regions with higher Ukrainian population shares were struck harder with centrally planned policies corresponding to famine, and Ukrainian populated areas were given lower amounts of tractors which were correlated to a reduction in famine mortality, ultimately concluding that 92% of famine deaths in Ukraine alone along with 77% of famine deaths in Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus combined can be explained by systematic bias against Ukrainians.[12]
Many prominent Ukrainians were labelled nationalists or anti-revolutionaries, and many of them were repressed and executed as enemies of the people.[13]
In January 1944, during a session of the Politbureau of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), Stalin personally made a speech "About anti-Lenin mistakes and nationalistic perversions in a film-tale of Alexander Dovzhenko, Ukraine in Flames.[14]
On 2 July 1951, the Communist newspaper
Modern analysis indicates that the Ukrainian language was underrepresented in Soviet media productions.[16]
Anti-Ukrainian hate speech during the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Inciting and dehumanizing anti-Ukrainian narratives that keep recurring in this context on social media platforms have been analyzed. They have been compared with hate speech that in the past has been used to justify violence against groups such as the victims of the Holocaust, groups targeted by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, Tutsi people during the Rwanda genocide of 1994 and the Rohingya in Myanmar.
In the case of the Russo-Ukrainian war, approving and promoting the violence includes i.a. celebrating Russian war crimes such as the Bucha massacre, or Russian missile strike on an apartment building in Dnipro in January 2023, which killed more than 40 civilians. Social media accounts posting on such themes often simultaneously target the sexual and gender minorities, promote conspiracy theories such as "biolabs in Ukraine", QANON and tend to express support for Donald Trump.[17]
By country
Ukraine
On Sunday 15 July 2012, the national television broadcasting station in Ukraine
A propaganda article posted on the website of the
Mykola Levchenko, a Ukrainian parliamentarian from Party of Regions, and the deputy of Donetsk City Council states that there should be only one language, Russian. He says that the Ukrainian language is impractical and should be avoided. Levchenko called Ukrainian the language of folklore and anecdotes. However, he says he will speak the literary Ukrainian language on principle, once Russian is adopted as the sole state language.[20] Anna German, the spokesperson of the same party, highly criticized those statements.[21]
Mykhailo Bakharev, the vice-speaker of the Crimean Autonomous Republic parliament (and chief editor of Krymskaya Pravda), openly says that there is no Ukrainian language and that it is the language of the non-educated part of population. He claims that it was invented by Taras Shevchenko and others. He also believes that there is no Ukraine nation, there is no future for the Ukrainian State, and that Ukrainization needs to be stopped.[22]
Minister of Education of Ukraine
The former Ukrainian Minister of Science and Education,
Russia
In response to Ukraine's 1991 declaration of independence, a prominent Russian poet
In a poll held by
Some Russian media seem to try to discredit Ukraine.
In 2006, in letters to
According to the Ukrainian Cultural Centre of Bashkortostan, despite their significant presence in Russia, Ukrainians in that country have less access to Ukrainian-language schools and Ukrainian churches than do other ethnic groups.[41] In Vladivostok, according to the head of the Ukrainian government's department of Ukrainian Diaspora Affairs, local Russian officials banned a Ukrainian Sunday school in order not to "accentuate national issues"[42]
According to the president of the Ukrainian World Congress in 2001, persistent requests to register a Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kyiv Patriarchate or a Ukrainian Catholic Church were hampered due to "particular discrimination" against them, while other Catholic, Muslim and Jewish denominations fared much better.[43] According to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, by 2007 their denomination had only one church building in all of Russia.[44]
In 2008 Nikolai Smirnov released a documentary in which he claims that Ukraine is part of one whole Russia that was split away by different western powers such as Poland, particularly.[45][46]
In November 2010, the
Hungary
Poland
Polish anti-Ukrainian sentiment dates back to the aftermath of the
In late 1995, Ukrainian organization "ZUwP" was demanded to be banned
Ukrainophobic and antisemitic authors (mainly interbellum
With the outbreak of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014, the number of Ukrainian people in Poland increased, especially those emigrating for work purposes, whose number began to grow in 2015.[62] At that time, a stereotype of a Ukrainian as a cheap worker working illegally or as a person taking jobs from Poles in Poland emerged[63] and increase in anti-immigrant sentiments by some political parties.
Situation after 24 February 2022
24 February 2022 armed forces of the Russian Federation
Recently, the most negative feelings among Polish society have been aroused by military support for Ukraine, which is defined as the transfer of military equipment and some necessary logistic supplies for free, and the problem related to Ukrainian grain, which caused farmers' protests on the Polish-Ukrainian border related to the massive flooding of the market. Polish through Ukrainian grain, lowering local prices.[69][70]
Romania
Portugal
Anti-Ukrainian sentiment in Portugal has grown since the arrival of Ukrainian immigrants to Portuguese territory in the 1990s.[citation needed] Most Ukrainians in Portugal work in low-skill and low wages jobs, particularly on cleaning services, construction, manufacturing industries, transport services, hotels and restaurants.[71] Due to this, many Ukrainian citizens are constantly victims of aporophobia.[citation needed] Generally in Portugal, citizens of Eastern European countries, no matter what country they are from, are called "Ukrainians" with a hint of contempt for that country, especially when they are poor people.[citation needed] In March 2020, a Ukrainian citizen named Ihor Humenyuk was interrogated and tortured to death at Lisbon airport while trying to immigrate to Portugal irregularly.[72][73]
Canada
Anti-Ukrainian discrimination was present in Canada from the arrival of
This attitude began to slowly change after the
Since the adoption of official multiculturalism under
Latvia
According to researcher Mārtiņš Kaprāns of
On 20 May 2022, a man in Riga was ordered to pay 6034.55 euros as material and moral damages and sentenced to 200 hours of community service for attacking a young man with a flag of Ukraine on his shoulders.[76] A police officer and an alleged spouse of the attacker present at the moment of the attack was fired from the State Police for negligence.[77] On 24 June 2022, a criminal case was launched against two young people for burning a flag of Ukraine at Vērmane Garden with the intention of posting the video on TikTok to gain popularity and provoke Ukrainians.[78]
Slang references to Ukrainians and Ukrainian culture
The use of ethnic slurs and stereotypes in relation to Ukrainians in
Ethnic slurs
- khokhol – derived from a term for a traditional Cossack-style haircut.[80]
- saloyed – literally "salo eater"; based on a stereotype and a running joke that salo is a national food favorite of the Ukrainians.
- Ukr, plural Ukry – after gaining independence, Ukrainians started rebuilding their history after a long period of Polonization and Russification. This nation-building drive was derided by Russians. A Russian running joke is that Ukrainians derive the name of the country Ukraine from the name of the supposed ancient tribe of "Ukrs". Also derisively called Great Ukrs, Velikiie Ukry.
- Ukrop – literally " party.
- Szoszon – in Poland, especially eastern parts of the country, imitative of Ukrainian shcho, literally "what?", and a pun on the Shoshone tribe of North America.[83]
- Hunky – in North America (historically)
Political insults and historical nicknames
- Maloross – Ukrainian, "Little Russian", "dweller of Malorossiya". Revival of a nineteenth-century imperial Russian term dismissive of independent Ukrainian nationality. Ukrainians often use this to describe culturally russified Ukrainians.
There are a number of Russian insults based on the alleged opposition of all Ukrainians to all things Russian (or all things Soviet, in the past):
- Mazepinets – Mazepite, Ivan Mazepa supporter, archaic.
- Pietliurovets – Petlyurite, Symon Petliura supporter.[84]
- Banderivets, or Banderovets, also variants Bandera, Banderlog, Benderovets. – "Banderite", a term used to associate Ukrainian national identity with radical nationalism.[85][86][87][88] Historically, referred to supporters of far-right nationalist politician Stepan Bandera (1909–59).
- Zhydobandera, Zhidobandera, or Zhydobanderovets – "Yid-Banderite" or "Judeo-Banderite" a conflation of Zhyd (i.e., a Kike) and a Bandera follower. This is an ironic self-appellation coined by Ukrainian Jewish activists during the Euromaidan protests to highlight the inconsistency of Russian propaganda which demonized Ukrainian pro-Europe and pro-democracy activism as fascist to the West and as Jewish to Ukrainians, with reference to "Judeo-Bolshevism".[89]
- Maidaun – a conflation of the Maidan protest movement and daun, person with Down syndrome.[90]
- Maidanutyi – a conflation of the Maidan and the yebanutyi, "fucked in the head" (insane).[91]
- kastruliegolovyi – literally "cooking pot-headed". A derogatory term for Euromaidan supporters.[92] So-called "Dictatorship laws" banned, among other things, the use of helmets during mass gatherings. On 19 January 2014 some Euromaidan participants mocked the ban by wearing cookware as helmets.[93][94][95][96]
- svidomit – a conflation of Ukrainian svidomyi, "conscious, conscientious",[97] and Russian sodomit, "sodomite".
- Banderlog – a conflation of Bandera and Bandar-log.
- Pigs – refers to a stereotype that Ukrainians love to eat salo and pork in general.
Other
- mova – a Russian derisive slang reference to Ukrainian language ("language" is mova in Ukrainian, yazyk in Russian).[98][99]
- nezalezhnaya – a Russian derisive slang reference to Ukraine. Borrowing of Ukrainian nezalezhna, "independent", with a Russian ending, mocking the historical Ukrainian struggle for independence (compare Russian nezavisimaya). Sometimes used colloquially by Russians and Russian mass media to express ironic, disparaging attitude towards Ukraine.[100][99]
Anti-Ukrainian sentiment in culture and media
See also
- Chronology of Ukrainian language bans
- Russification of Ukraine
- Slavophobia
- Dziuba, Ivan, Internationalism or Russification?, a dissident's Marxist critique of the national and cultural policy of the Soviet Union in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
- "What Russia should do with Ukraine"
- Russian allegations of fascism against Ukraine
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Much in the same way as the tsarist government in its day branded all patriotic Ukrainians as "Mazepists" after Hetman Ivan Mazepa, the Russian state-controlled media have labeled EuroMaidan activists as "Banderites" after the twentieth-century nationalist leader Stepan Bandera (1909-1959). This stigmatization is unjust because radical nationalists constituted only a small minority among EuroMaidan revolutionaries, and their political parties performed poorly in the parliamentary elections that followed the revolution. Yet, it was a clever propaganda trick to associate a separate Ukrainian national identity exclusively with the most radical branch of Ukrainian nationalism. To most Russians and many Russian-speakers in eastern Ukraine, the term "Banderite" still carries negative historical connotations, established in Stalin's time. After World War II ended, the Soviet press denounced the Bandera-led insurgents, who resisted the Sovietization of eastern Galicia.
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(help - ^ Portnov, Andrii (22 June 2016). "Bandera mythologies and their traps for Ukraine". openDemocracy. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
The common noun "Banderivtsi" ("Banderites") emerged around this time, and it was used to designate all Ukrainian nationalists, but also, on occasion, western Ukrainians or even any person who spoke Ukrainian. Even today, the term "Banderivtsi" in public debate is never neutral — it can be used pejoratively or proudly.
- ^ Esch, Christian (2015). "'Banderites' vs. 'New Russia'" (PDF). Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. Retrieved 22 August 2022.
In Soviet Ukraine, the nationalist project was repressed or vilified in its entirety. Hundreds of thousands of civilians from Western Ukraine were deported to forced labour camps. "Banderovets" became a label that could be attached to any real or purported enemy of Soviet power in western Ukraine. It sounded as bad as "fascist". There was no effort to recognise the UPA as an independent actor with its own agenda, and to distinguish it from outright collaborationism, i.e. the Ukrainian "Waffen-SS Division 'Galizien'" which was under German command. There was also no effort to differentiate between different currents in and periods of OUN and UPA policy, and its more democratic rhetoric towards the end of the war. Even in the 1980s Ukrainian dissidents, no matter how democratic they were, could be labelled "Banderites" or "Fascists".
- Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
- S2CID 246117701.
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