Antichrist
In Christian eschatology, the Antichrist refers to people prophesied by the Bible to oppose Jesus Christ and substitute themselves as "saviors" in Christ's place before the Second Coming.[1] The term Antichrist (including one plural form)[2] is found four times in the New Testament, solely in the First and Second Epistle of John.[2] The Antichrist is announced as the one "who denies the Father and the Son."[2]
The similar term pseudokhristos or "false Christ" is also found in the Gospels.
Etymology
Antichrist is translated from the combination of two ancient Greek words ἀντί + Χριστός (anti + Christos). In Greek, Χριστός means "anointed one" and the word Christ derives from it.[10] "Ἀντί" means not only anti in the sense of "against" and "opposite of", but also "in place of".[11][12]
History
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New Testament
Whether the New Testament contains an individual Antichrist is disputed. The Greek term antikhristos originates in 1 John.
The five uses of the term "antichrist" or "antichrists" in the Johannine epistles do not clearly present a single latter-day individual Antichrist. The articles "the deceiver" or "the antichrist" are usually seen as marking out a certain category of persons, rather than an individual.[17]
Children, it is the last hour! As you have heard that antichrist is coming, so now many antichrists have come. From this we know that it is the last hour.
— 1 John 2:18 NRSV (1989)
Who is the liar but the one who denies that Jesus is the Christ? This is the antichrist, the one who denies the Father and the Son.
— 1 John 2:22 NRSV (1989)
By this you know the Spirit of God: every spirit that confesses that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God, and every spirit that does not confess Jesus is not from God. And this is the spirit of the antichrist, of which you have heard that it is coming; and now it is already in the world.
— 1 John 4:2–3 NRSV (1989)
Many deceivers have gone out into the world, those who do not confess that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh; any such person is the deceiver and the antichrist!
— 2 John 1:7 NRSV (1989)
Consequently, attention for an individual Antichrist figure focuses on the second chapter of
However, the term "antichrist" is never used in this passage:As to the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ and our being gathered together to him, we beg you, brothers and sisters, not to be quickly shaken in mind or alarmed, either by spirit or by word or by letter, as though from us, to the effect that the day of the Lord is already here. Let no one deceive you in any way; for that day will not come unless the rebellion comes first and the lawless one is revealed, the one destined for destruction. He opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god or object of worship, so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, declaring himself to be God.
— 2 Thessalonians 2:1–4 NRSV (1989)
For the mystery of lawlessness is already at work, but only until the one who now restrains it is removed. And then the lawless one will be revealed, whom the Lord Jesus will destroy with the breath of his mouth, annihilating him by the manifestation of his coming. The coming of the lawless one is apparent in the working of Satan, who uses all power, signs, lying wonders, and every kind of wicked deception for those who are perishing, because they refused to love the truth and so be saved.
— 2 Thessalonians 2:7–10 NRSV (1989)
Although the word "antichrist" (Greek antikhristos) is used only in the Epistles of John, the similar word "pseudochrist" (Greek pseudokhristos, meaning "false messiah") is used by Jesus in the Gospels:[14]
For false messiahs and false prophets will appear and produce great signs and omens, to lead astray, if possible, even the elect.
— Matthew 24:24 and Mark 13:22 NRSV (1989)
Early Church
The second- or first-century book Odes of Solomon, written by an Essene convert to Christianity, makes mention of the Antichrist in figurative terms, where the redeemer overcomes the monstrous dragon.[20][21][22]
The only one of the late 1st-/early 2nd-century
The non-canonical Ascension of Isaiah presents a detailed exposition of the Antichrist as Belial and Nero.[26]
Tertullian (c. 160 – c. 220 AD) held that the Roman Empire was the restraining force written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7–8. The fall of the Western Roman Empire and the disintegration of the ten provinces of the Roman Empire into ten kingdoms were to make way for the Antichrist.
By, "For that day will not come unless the rebellion comes first," he [Paul] means indeed this present empire, "and the man of lawlessness is revealed"—that is to say, the Antichrist, "the son of destruction, who opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god or religion, so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, declaring himself to be God. Do you not remember that I told you these things when I was still with you? And you know what is now restraining him, so that he may be revealed when his time comes. For the mystery of lawlessness is already at work, but only until the one who now restrains it is removed." What obstacles are there but the Roman state, the rebellion of which, by being scattered into the ten kingdoms, will introduce the Antichrist upon its own ruins? "And then the lawless one will be revealed, whom the Lord will destroy with the breath of his mouth, annihilating him by the manifestation of his coming. The coming of the lawless one is apparent in the working of Satan, who uses all power, signs, lying wonders, and every kind of wicked deception for those who are perishing."[27]
Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170 – c. 236) held that the Antichrist would come from the tribe of Dan and would rebuild the Jewish temple on the Temple Mount in order to reign from it. He identified the Antichrist with the Beast out of the Earth from the book of Revelation.
By the beast, then, coming up out of the earth, he means the kingdom of Antichrist; and by the two horns he means him and the false prophet after him. And in speaking of "horns like a lamb," he means that he will make himself like the Son of God, and set himself forward as king. And the terms, "it spoke like a dragon," mean that he is a deceiver, and not truthful.[28]
Where is the absurdity, then, in holding that there exist among men, so to speak, two extremes—the one of virtue, and the other of its opposite; so that the perfection of virtue dwells in the man who realizes the ideal given in Jesus, from whom there flowed to the human race so great a conversion, and healing, and amelioration, while the opposite extreme is in the man who embodies the notion of him that is named Antichrist?... one of these extremes, and the best of the two, should be styled the Son of God, on account of His pre-eminence; and the other, who is diametrically opposite, be termed the son of the wicked demon, and of Satan, and of the devil. And, in the next place, since evil is specially characterized by its diffusion, and attains its greatest height when it simulates the appearance of the good, for that reason are signs, and marvels, and lying miracles found to accompany evil, through the cooperation of its father the devil.[29]
Post-Nicene Christianity
Cyril of Jerusalem, in the mid-4th century, delivered his 15th catechetical lecture about the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, in which he also lectures about the Antichrist, who will reign as the ruler of the world for three and a half years, before he is killed by Jesus Christ at the end of his three-and-a-half-year reign, shortly after which the Second Coming of Jesus Christ will happen.
Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 298–373) wrote that Arius of Alexandria is to be associated with the Antichrist, saying, "And ever since [the Council of Nicaea] has Arius's error been reckoned for a heresy more than ordinary, being known as Christ's foe, and harbinger of [the] Antichrist."[31]
As part of his prediction that the world would end before 400 CE, Martin of Tours (c. 336 - 397) wrote that "There is no doubt that the Antichrist has already been born. Firmly established already in his early years, he will, after reaching maturity, achieve supreme power."
John Chrysostom (c. 347–407) warned against speculating about the Antichrist, saying, "Let us not therefore enquire into these things". He preached that by knowing Paul's description of the Antichrist in 2 Thessalonians, Christians would avoid deception.[32]
Jerome (c. 347–420) warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of scripture belonged to the "synagogue of the Antichrist".[33] "He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist", he wrote to Pope Damasus I.[34] He believed that "the mystery of lawlessness" written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when "every one chatters about his views."[35] To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of lawlessness was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. He warned a noble woman of Gaul:
He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth." "Woe unto them," he cries, "that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days." ... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun all parts of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of
Pannonians.[36]
In his Commentary on Daniel, Jerome noted, "Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form." Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be like God." He refuted Porphyry's idea that the "little horn" mentioned in Daniel chapter 7 was Antiochus IV Epiphanes by noting that the "little horn" is defeated by an eternal, universal ruler, right before the final judgment.[37] Instead, he advocated that the "little horn" was the Antichrist:
We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings... after they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor.[37]
Circa 380, an apocalyptic pseudo-prophecy
When the Roman empire shall have ceased, then the Antichrist will be openly revealed and will sit in the House of the Lord in Jerusalem. While he is reigning, two very famous men, Elijah and Enoch, will go forth to announce the coming of the Lord. Antichrist will kill them and after three days they will be raised up by the Lord. Then there will be a great persecution, such as has not been before nor shall be thereafter. The Lord will shorten those days for the sake of the elect, and the Antichrist will be slain by the power of God through Michael the Archangel on the Mount of Olives.[38]
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) wrote "it is uncertain in what temple [the Antichrist] shall sit, whether in that ruin of the temple which was built by Solomon, or in the Church."[39]
Gregory of Tours claimed that the antichrist would place his image to be worshipped in the temple in Jerusalem, he would assert himself to be Christ and would call for Christians to undergo circumcision.[40]
Pope Gregory I wrote to the Byzantine Emperor Maurice in A.D. 597, concerning the titles of bishops, "I say with confidence that whoever calls or desires to call himself 'universal priest' in self-exaltation of himself is a precursor of the Antichrist."[41]
By the end of the tenth century, Adso of Montier-en-Der, a Benedictine monk, compiled a biography of Antichrist based on a variety of exegetical and Sibylline sources; his account became one of the best-known descriptions of Antichrist in the Middle Ages.[42][43]
De Antichristo libri undecim, published by Tomàs Maluenda in 1604, is considered the most complete treatise on the subject.[44]
Pre-Reformation Western Church accusers
Pope Gregory VII (c. 1015 or 1029–1085), struggled against, in his own words, "a robber of temples, a perjurer against the Holy Roman Church, notorious throughout the whole Roman world for the basest of crimes, namely, Wilbert, plunderer of the holy church of Ravenna, Antichrist, and arch-heretic."[48]
Cardinal Benno, on the opposite side of the Investiture Controversy, wrote long descriptions of abuses committed by Gregory VII, including necromancy, torture of a former friend upon a bed of nails, commissioning an attempted assassination, executions without trials, unjust excommunication, doubting the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and even burning it.[49] Benno held that Gregory VII was "either a member of Antichrist, or Antichrist himself."[50]
Eberhard II von Truchsees,
"A little horn has grown up" with "eyes and mouth speaking great things", which is reducing three of these kingdoms (i.e. Sicily, Italy, and Germany) to subserviency, is persecuting the people of Christ and the saints of God with intolerable opposition, is confounding things human and divine, and is attempting things unutterable, execrable.[55]
Protestant Reformation
Among the others who interpreted the biblical
Some Franciscans had considered the Emperor Frederick II a positive Antichrist who would purify the Catholic Church from opulence, riches and clergy.[75]
Historicist interpretations of Book of Revelation usually included the identification of one or more of the following:
- the Antichrist (1 and 2 John);
- the Beast of Revelation 13;
- the 2 Thessalonians 2 (2:1–12);
- the "Little horn" of Daniel 7 and 8;
- The 12; and
- the Whore of Babylon of Revelation 17.
The Protestant Reformers tended to hold the belief that the Antichrist power would be revealed so that everyone would comprehend and recognize that the Pope is the real, true Antichrist and not the vicar of Christ. Doctrinal works of literature published by the
The identification of the Pope with the Antichrist was so ingrained in the
"This teaching [of the supremacy of the pope] shows forcefully that the Pope is the very Antichrist, who has exalted himself above, and opposed himself against Christ, because he will not permit Christians to be saved without his power, which, nevertheless, is nothing, and is neither ordained nor commanded by God".[80]
and,
"nothing else than the kingdom of Babylon and of the very Antichrist. For who is the man of sin and the son of perdition, but he who by his teaching and his ordinances increases the sin and perdition of souls in the church; while he yet sits in the church as if he were God? All these conditions have now for many ages been fulfilled by the papal tyranny."[81]
John Calvin similarly wrote:
"Though it be admitted that Rome was once the mother of all Churches, yet from the time when it began to be the seat of Antichrist it has ceased to be what it was before. Some persons think us too severe and censorious when we call the Roman Pontiff Antichrist. But those who are of this opinion do not consider that they bring the same charge of presumption against Paul himself, after whom we speak and whose language we adopt ... I shall briefly show that (Paul's words in II Thess. 2) are not capable of any other interpretation than that which applies them to the Papacy."[82]
John Knox wrote on the Pope:
"Yea, to speak it in plain words; lest that we submit ourselves to Satan, thinking that we submit ourselves to Jesus Christ, for, as for your Roman kirk [church], as it is now corrupted, and the authority thereof, whereon stands the hope of your victory, I no more doubt but that it is the synagogue of Satan, and the head thereof, called the pope, to be that man of sin, of whom the apostle speaks."[83]
Thomas Cranmer on the Antichrist wrote:
"Whereof it followeth Rome to be the seat of Antichrist, and the pope to be very antichrist himself. I could prove the same by many other scriptures, old writers, and strong reasons."[84]
John Wesley, speaking of the identity given in the Bible of the Antichrist, wrote:
"In many respects, the Pope has an indisputable claim to those titles. He is, in an emphatical sense, the man of sin, as he increases all manner of sin above measure. And he is, too, properly styled, the son of perdition, as he has caused the death of numberless multitudes, both of his opposers and followers, destroyed innumerable souls, and will himself perish everlastingly. He it is that opposeth himself to the emperor, once his rightful sovereign; and that exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped—Commanding angels, and putting kings under his feet, both of whom are called gods in scripture; claiming the highest power, the highest honour; suffering himself, not once only, to be styled God or vice-God. Indeed no less is implied in his ordinary title, "Most Holy Lord," or, "Most Holy Father." So that he sitteth—Enthroned. In the temple of God—Mentioned Rev. xi, 1. Declaring himself that he is God—Claiming the prerogatives which belong to God alone."[85]
Roger Williams wrote about the Pope:
"the pretended Vicar of Christ on earth, who sits as God over the Temple of God, exalting himself not only above all that is called God, but over the souls and consciences of all his vassals, yea over the Spirit of Christ, over the Holy Spirit, yea, and God himself ... speaking against the God of heaven, thinking to change times and laws; but he is the Son of Perdition."[86]
The identification of the Roman Catholic Church as the apostate power written of in the Bible as the Antichrist became evident to many as the Reformation began, including John Wycliffe, who was well known throughout Europe for his opposition to the doctrine and practices of the Catholic Church, which he believed had clearly deviated from the original teachings of the early Church and to be contrary to the Bible. Wycliffe himself tells (Sermones, III. 199) how he concluded that there was a great contrast between what the Church was and what it ought to be, and saw the necessity for reform. Along with John Hus, they had started the inclination toward ecclesiastical reforms of the Catholic Church.
When the Swiss Reformer
The English Reformer
In 1973, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops' Committee on Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs and the USA National Committee of the Lutheran World Federation in the official Catholic–Lutheran dialogue officially signed an agreement on Papal Primacy and the Universal Church, including this passage:
In calling the pope the "Antichrist", the early
In 1988 Ian Paisley, Evangelical minister and founder of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, made headlines in an infamous manner by accusing Pope John Paul II as the Antichrist during one of the pope's speeches before the European Parliament, which at the time Paisley was member. His accusation, and the reactions of both Pope John Paul II and other members of the European Parliament, was recorded on video.[90][91]
The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states about the Pope and the Catholic Church:[92]
There are two principles that mark the papacy as the Antichrist. One is that
antichristian rule in the church. All popes hold the same office over the church and promote the same antichristian belief so they all are part of the reign of the Antichrist. The Bible does not present the Antichrist as one man for one short time, but as an office held by a man through successive generations. It is a title like King of England.[93]
Currently, many Protestant and
Counter-Reformation
In the
Historically, preterists and non-preterists have agreed that the Jesuit Luis de Alcasar (1554–1613) wrote the first systematic preterist exposition of prophecy—Vestigatio arcani sensus in Apocalypsi (published in 1614)—during the Counter-Reformation.
Christian views
Roman Catholicism
From the Fifth Council of the Lateran, the Catholic Church teaches that priests may not "preach or declare a fixed time for...the coming of antichrist..."[101] The church also teaches that it must undergo trials before the Second Coming,[102] and that the church's ultimate trial will be the mystery of iniquity.[103] In Judaism, iniquity is a sin done out of moral failing.[104] The mystery of iniquity, according to the church, will be a religious deception: Christians receiving alleged solutions to their problems at the cost of apostasy.[103] The supreme religious deception, according to the church, will be the Antichrist's messianism: mankind glorifying himself rather than God and Jesus.[103] The church teaches that this supreme deception is committed by people who claim to fulfill Israel's messianic hopes, such as millenarianism and secular messianicism.[103]
Popes
Pope Pius IX in the encyclical Quartus Supra, quoting Cyprian, said Satan disguises the Antichrist with the title of Christ.[105] Pope Pius X in the encyclical E Supremi said that the distinguishing mark of the Antichrist is claiming to be God and taking his place.[106] Pope John Paul II, in his August 18, 1985 address on his apostolic journey to Africa, said 1 John 4:3 ("Every spirit that does not acknowledge Jesus does not belong to God. This is the spirit of antichrist") evokes the danger of theology divorced from holiness and theological culture divorced from serving Christ.[107] Pope Benedict XVI said in the Sunday Angelus of March 11, 2012 that violence is the tool of the Antichrist.[108] In the General Audience of November 12, 2008, Benedict XVI said Christian tradition had come to identify the son of perdition as the Antichrist.[109] Pope Francis, in his morning meditation of February 2, 2014, said that Christian faith is not an ideology, but that "the Apostle James says that ideologues of the faith are the Antichrist."[110] In his morning meditation of September 19, 2014, Francis said the Antichrist must come before the final resurrection.[111] In his morning meditation of January 7, 2016, he said the evil spirit spoken of in 1 John 4:6 is the Antichrist.[112] In his morning meditation on November 11, 2016, Francis said whoever says the criteria of Christian love is not the Incarnation is the Antichrist.[113]
Speculation
The Prophecy of the Popes (identified as a 16th century forgery by historians[114]) claims Rome will be destroyed during the pontificate of the last Pope, implying a connection to the Antichrist.
Fulton J. Sheen, a Catholic bishop, wrote in 1951:[115][116]
The Antichrist will not be so called; otherwise he would have no followers... he will come disguised as the Great Humanitarian; he will talk peace, prosperity and plenty not as means to lead us to God, but as ends in themselves... He will tempt Christians with the same three temptations with which he tempted Christ... He will have one great secret which he will tell to no one: he will not believe in God. Because his religion will be brotherhood without the fatherhood of God, he will deceive even the elect. He will set up a counterchurch... It will have all the notes and characteristics of the Church, but in reverse and emptied of its divine content. It will be a mystical body of the Antichrist that will in all externals resemble the mystical body of Christ.
Catechism of the Catholic Church
The Catechism of the Catholic Church, which John Paul II said is a "sure norm for teaching the faith," puts the doctrine on the Antichrist under a subsection entitled "The Church's Ultimate Trial," equating it with "the supreme religious deception" and "pseudo-messianism" of human "self-glorification":
Before Christ's second coming the Church must pass through a final trial that will shake the faith of many believers. The persecution that accompanies her pilgrimage on earth will unveil the "mystery of iniquity" in the form of a religious deception offering men an apparent solution to their problems at the price of apostasy from the truth. The supreme religious deception is that of the Antichrist, a pseudo-messianism by which man glorifies himself in place of God and of his Messiah come in the flesh. (CCC 675)
The Antichrist's deception already begins to take shape in the world every time the claim is made to realize within history that messianic hope which can only be realized beyond history through the eschatological judgment. The Church has rejected even modified forms of this falsification of the kingdom to come under the name of millenarianism, especially the "intrinsically perverse" political form of a secular messianism. (CCC 676)
Eastern Orthodox
Throughout history, various ecclesiastics of the Eastern Orthodox Church have identified the office of the Roman Catholic papacy with the antichrist.
It is clear that by this regulation the Church does not recognize in heretics and schismatics either the priesthood or the other mysteries, and considers them subject to ecclesiastical baptism in the nature of things ... the Church by receiving Latins into communion in the same way as Nestorians (Council of Trullo, 95) does not make any distinction between old heresies and the Latin one. I think that the Latins are considerably further from the Church and they are worse than Monophysites and Monophelites, because they created a second Christ, i.e., the antichrist in the person of the Pope, who is supposedly infallible...[117]
In a Christmas 2018 interview on Russian state television, Patriarch Kirill of Moscow warned that "The Antichrist is the person that will be at the head of the world wide web controlling all of humanity. That means that the structure itself poses a danger. There shouldn't be a single centre, at least not in the foreseeable future, if we don't want to bring on the apocalypse." He exhorted listeners not to "fall into slavery to what's in your hands"..."You should remain free inside and not fall under any addiction, not to alcohol, not to narcotics, not to gadgets."[118]
Old Believers
After Patriarch Nikon of Moscow reformed the Russian Orthodox Church during the second half of the 17th century, a large number of Old Believers held that Peter the Great, the Tsar of the Russian Empire until his death in 1725, was the Antichrist because of his treatment of the Orthodox Church, namely subordinating the church to the state, requiring clergymen to conform to the standards of all Russian civilians (shaved beards, being fluent in French), and requiring them to pay state taxes.[119]
There are two conceptions of the Antichrist among the Old Believers: the spiritual Antichrist and the sensual Antichrist. The sensual means a particular person who will rule at the end of times for literal 3.5 years. The priested Old believers mostly adhere to this conception. The spiritual Antichrist is said to rule in the heretical church and state as a spirit through many people – since the year 1000 in the West and since 1666 in Russia. The true priesthood is considered to be lacking in the world due to 'abomination of desolation', which is synonymous with the rule of Antichrist. Most non-priested Old believers adhere to this conception (except the so called "Chasovennye").[120]
Age of Enlightenment
Bernard McGinn noted that complete denial of the Antichrist was rare until the Age of Enlightenment. Following frequent use of "Antichrist" laden rhetoric during religious controversies in the 17th century, the use of the concept declined during the 18th century due to the rule of enlightened absolutists, who as European rulers of the time wielded significant influence over official state churches. These efforts[further explanation needed] to cleanse Christianity of "legendary" or "folk" accretions effectively removed the Antichrist from discussion in mainstream Western churches.[16]
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
In
Seventh-day Adventists
Seventh-day Adventists understand the 1260 years as lasting AD 538 to 1798 as the (supposed) duration of the papacy's domination over Rome.
Like many
Ellen White writes,
His word has given warning of the impending danger; let this be unheeded, and the Protestant world will learn what the purposes of Rome really are, only when it is too late to escape the snare. She is silently growing into power. Her doctrines are exerting their influence in legislative halls, in the churches, and in the hearts of men. She is piling up her lofty and massive structures in the secret recesses of which her former persecutions will be repeated. Stealthily and unsuspectedly she is strengthening her forces to further her own ends when the time shall come for her to strike. All that she desires is vantage ground, and this is already being given her. We shall soon see and shall feel what the purpose of the Roman element is. Whoever shall believe and obey the word of God will thereby incur reproach and persecution.[128]
Seventh-day Adventists view the length of time the apostate church's unbridled power was permitted to rule as shown in Daniel 7:25: "The little horn would rule a time and times and half a time" – or 1,260 years. They regard papal rule as supreme in Europe from 538 (when the Arian Ostrogoths retreated from Rome into temporary oblivion) until 1798 (when the French general
Other Christian interpretations
Martin Wight
The devout Christian and political theorist Martin Wight, writing immediately after World War II, favoured the revival of the Antichrist doctrine not as a person, but as a recurrent situation featuring "demonic concentrations of power."[130]
As "man of lawlessness"
The Antichrist has been equated with the "man of lawlessness" or "lawless one" of 2 Thessalonians 2:3, though commentaries on the identity of the "man of lawlessness" greatly vary.[131] The "man of lawlessness" has been identified with Caligula,[132] Nero,[133] and the end times Antichrist. Some scholars believe that the passage contains no genuine prediction, but represents a speculation of the apostle's own, based on contemporary ideas of the Antichrist.[132]
As "being in league with other figures"
Several American
As Satan
Bernard McGinn described multiple traditions detailing the relationship between the Antichrist and Satan. In the dualist approach, Satan will become incarnate in the Antichrist, just as God became incarnate in Jesus. However, in orthodox Christian thought, this view was problematic because it was too similar to Christ's incarnation and suggested dualism. Instead, the "indwelling" view became more accepted. It stipulates that the Antichrist is a human figure inhabited by Satan, since the latter's power is not to be seen as equivalent to God's.[16] Luca Signorelli's fresco, The Sermon and Deeds of the Antichrist (see above), depicts the indwelling view. Satan whispers in the ear of this Christlike figure and his left arm is slipped through the Antichrist's garment as if he is manipulating him.
As Jesus himself
Creciendo en Gracia (Growing in Grace) was a sect led by José Luis de Jesús, who claimed to be both the returned phase of Jesus Christ and the Antichrist. He claimed that the term Antichrist had nothing to do with Satan (who according to him was destroyed); rather, it referred to his assertion that the old "Jewish" laws, which Jesus had taught during his first coming, were now abrogated during his second coming as de Jesús. Followers of the sect had themselves tattooed with the number 666, referencing this belief.
Non-Christian views
Part of a series on |
Eschatology |
---|
Judaism
There are warnings against false prophets in the Old Testament of the bible.
An anti-Messiah figure known as
Islam
11 Hadith also report on the "
children of fornication; God will kill him in Syria, at a pass called the Pass of Afiq, after three hours are gone from the day, at the hand of Jesus".[139]
Imam Mahdi (
Ahmadiyya
Part of a series on
Ahmadiyya |
---|
Prophecies concerning the emergence of the Antichrist (Al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl) are interpreted in
Baha'i
The Antichrist is considered to subvert the religion of God from the inner reality of man as
Scientology
In a document originally released only to high-ranking followers, Scientology founder
In popular culture
In February 1900, the Christian Russian philosopher and mystic
The enthronement of the Antichrist is associated with
Antichrist is the title of a song released by British alternative band The 1975 released in 2012 on the Facedown EP.
See also
References
Citations
- S2CID 239226039.
- ^ a b c 1 John 2:18–22; 4:1–6. 2 John 1:7–11.
- ^ Strong, James (1890). "G5580 – pseudochristos". Strong's Concordance. Blue Letter Bible. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
ψευδόχριστος pseudóchristos, psyoo-dokh'-ris-tos; [...] a spurious Messiah:—false Christ. ψευδόχριστος, ψευδοχριστου, ὁ (ψευδής and χριστός), a false Christ (or Messiah) (one who falsely lays claim to the name and office of the Messiah): Matthew 24:24; Mark 13:22.
- OCLC 9555379.
- ISSN 0340-9570.
- LCCN 2007013488.
- S2CID 191738355.
- S2CID 171574084.
- ^ Chrysostom, John. "Homily 4 on Second Thessalonians". Translated by John A. Broadus. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 13. Edited by Philip Schaff. (Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Company, 1889.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.
- ^ See Strong's Bible Dictionary: χριστος Archived July 11, 2012, at archive.today
- ^ See Strong's Bible Dictionary: αντί Archived July 16, 2012, at archive.today
- , one resembling a god in power and beauty (in other works it stands for a hostile god).
- ISBN 978-0567088086.
Against this background it can be seen that the technical Greek term antichristos, although it is known only from Christian … Antichristos first occurs in the Johannine epistles, and it is not used by other Greek Jewish or early Christian writings ...
- ^ a b Mauser, Ulrich (1992). The Gospel of Peace: A Scriptural Message for Today's World. p. 70.
From Josephus's writings we collect, first of all, without much critical comment, some statements showing the close affinity of the … nowhere in his extensive accounts of the Jewish–Roman war uses the word "pseudo-Christ" (pseudochristos).
- ^ "Sacred texts: Judaism". Archived from the original on April 23, 2023.
- ^ a b c Cabinet 2001.
- ISBN 978-0801026874.
The articles in front of "deceiver" (ὁ πλάνος, ho planos) and "antichrist" (ὁ ἀντίχριστος, ho antikhristos) should be seen as marking out a certain category of persons (Wallace 1996: 227–230). This is a common Johannine usage (1 John 2:23)
- ^ Weima, Jeffrey Alan David; Porter, Stanley E. (1998). Annotated Bibliography of 1 & 2 Thessalonians. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. p. 263.
(2) Does the New Testament support the notion of an individual Antichrist in whom all the anti-Christian strife of all ages will be concentrated? 2 Thess 2 answers the second question in the affirmative: an individual Antichrist will bring evil to its ...
- Berkouwerstates, "There is no reason to posit with certainty on the basis of the New Testament that the antichrist ... 2. particularly his statements about the "restrainer," compel us to believe that there will be a future, individual antichrist.
- ISBN 978-90-04-07609-9.
- ISBN 978-1-107-49773-3.
- ISBN 978-1-85075-660-6.
- ^ Polycarp. Polycarp's letter to the Philippians. paragraph 7.
- ISBN 978-0802807694.
Finally, Hartog notes that the Johannine Letters are the only NT [New Testament] writings to use the term "antichrist" (1 Jn 2:18, 22; 4:3; 2 Jn 7) and Polycarp is also the only Apostolic Father to use the term. He notes "Thus, the tests of 'density' and 'singularity' ...
- ISBN 978-0813214153.
- ISBN 978-0802837813.
The fullest exposition of the ideas associated with the antichrist in the early decades of Christian history is to be found in the Ascension of Isaiah. In this we are told that "Beliar" (Belial) would enter into "the matricide king" (Nero), who would work great wonders and do much evil.
- ^ "On the Resurrection, chp 24". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. June 1, 2005. Archived from the original on June 28, 2010. Retrieved June 18, 2010.
- ^ Hippolytus's Treatise on Christ and Antichrist, part 2
- ^ Origen 1872, p. 386
- ^ "Catalan Atlas. The Cresques Project – Panel VI". www.cresquesproject.net.
- ^ "CHURCH FATHERS: Discourse I Against the Arians (Athanasius)". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ Schaff, Philip; et al. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume XIII/On Philippians, Colossians, and Thessalonians/On 2 Thessalonians. Original author: John Chrysostom.
- ^ Jerome 1893b, p. 334
- ^ Jerome 1893, p. 19
- ^ Jerome 1893c, p. 449
- ^ Jerome 1893d, pp. 236–237
- ^ a b Jerome 1958
- ^ "Latin Tiburtine Sibyl". Http-server.carleton.ca. Archived from the original on 2 July 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2010.
- ^ "Church Fathers: City of God, Book XX (St. Augustine)".
- ^ A history of the Franks, Gregory of Tours, Pantianos Classics, 1916
- ^ quote from McGinn, Bernard, Visions of the End. Apocalyptic Traditions in the Middle Ages, New York: Columbia University, 1979. p. 64, found in Brug's A Scriptural and Historical Survey of the Doctrine of the Antichrist Archived November 30, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Emmerson, Richard Kenneth (1981). "The Life and Deeds of Antichrist". Antichrist in the Middle Ages. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press. pp. 74–107.
- ^ Emerson, Richard Kenneth (1979). "Antichrist as Anti-Saint: The Significance of Abbot Adso's Libellus de Antichristo". American Benedictine Review. 30 (2): 175–190.
- ISBN 978-9061862598.
[...] Thomas Malvenda, the indefatigable Dominican whose massive De Antichristo published in 1604 is still the most complete treatment of the subject.
- ISBN 978-0231119771.
- ^ Schaff & Schaff 1885, p. 291
- S2CID 194015213.
- ISBN 978-0231096270.
- ^ From long quotations in Foxe 1583, p. 121
- S2CID 162257968.
- ^ "Editorial Departments". The Methodist Review. XLIII (3). New York City: J. Soule and T. Mason: 305. 1896.
- ^ 7:23–25
- ^ 13:1–2
- ^ 17:3–18
- ^ a b Fuller, John Mee (1893). "Antichrist". A Dictionary of the Bible. London, England: John Murray. p. 147.
- ^ 7:8
- ISBN 978-0802807328– via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-1-4514-1398-4.
- ^ In Latin, the title reads "Hic oscula pedibus papae figuntur"
- ^ "Nicht Bapst: nicht schreck uns mit deim ban, Und sey nicht so zorniger man. Wir thun sonst ein gegen wehre, Und zeigen dirs Bel vedere"
- ISBN 978-1-4514-1398-4.
- ^ Luther, Martin (1521). Passional Christi vnd Antichristi (in German). Rhau-Grunenberg.
- ^ ISBN 978-0511495847.
- ^ ISBN 0-8091-3040-8.
- ^ Roland H. Bainton, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1952), 43, 44.
- ^ Froom 1948, pp. 244–245: "The reformers were unanimous in its acceptance. And it was this interpretation of prophecy that lent emphasis to their reformatory action. It led them to protest against Rome with extraordinary strength and undaunted courage. [...] This was the rallying point and the battle cry that made the Reformation unconquerable."
- ^ Dialogue with Trypho, ch. 32, in Ante-Nic. Fath. I:210.
- ^ Against Heresies, III: 7:2, in Ante-Nic. Fath. Ib., V:30:3–4.
- ^ Against Marcion, V:16, in Ante-Nic. Fath. III:463f.
- ^ Treatise on Christ and Antichrist, chs. 25 to 63, in Ante-Nic. Fath. V:209–218.
- ^ Fragments from Commentaries, 2:1–3, in Ante-Nic. Fath. V:178.
- ^ The Deposition of Arius, paras. 2 & 4, in Nic. & Post-Nic. Fath., 2nd Ser., IV:69.
- ISBN 0-923309-22-5.
- ISBN 978-0529106346.
- ISBN 978-0679724681.
- ^ "Smalcald Articles – Book of Concord". 8 November 2019. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2007.
- ^ Philip Melanchthon, Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope (full text Archived 2008-10-10 at the Wayback Machine) in the Triglot translation of the Book of Concord.
- ^ Archived copy at the Library of Congress (May 8, 2009).
- ^ "UMC.org : the official online ministry of The United Methodist Church".
- ^ Smalcald Articles, II.
- ^ Martin Luther, First Principles, pp. 196–197.
- ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, Vol. 3, p. 149.
- ^ John Knox, The History of the Reformation in Scotland, p. 65.
- ^ Works by Cranmer, Vol. 1, pp. 6–7.
- ^ John Wesley, Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament, p. 216.
- ^ Froom, The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers, Vol. 3, p. 52.
- ^ Principle Works of Zwingli, Vol. 7, p. 135.
- ^ Tyndale, William, Parable of the Wicked Mammon, c. 1526, (facsimile copy of later printing, no ISBN, Benediction Classics, 2008) at pp. 4–5.
- ^ "Tyndale's Doctrine of Antichrist and His Translation of 2 Thessalonians 2", R. Davis, New Matthew Bible Project; a shorter version of this article was also published in the Tyndale Society Journal No. 36, Spring 2009, under the title Tyndale, the Church, and the Doctrine of Antichrist).
- ^ "Papal Audience". The New York Times. October 16, 1988.
- ^ Ian Paisley Heckles the Pope (1988), retrieved 2023-11-05
- ^ a b "Doctrinal Statements: Antichrist". Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. 2018. Retrieved August 17, 2018.
We reject the idea that the teaching that the Papacy is the Antichrist rests on a merely human interpretation of history or is an open question. We hold rather that this teaching rests on the revelation of God in Scripture which finds its fulfillment in history. The Holy Spirit reveals this fulfillment to the eyes of faith (cf. The Abiding Word, Vol. 2, p. 764). Since Scripture teaches that the Antichrist would be revealed and gives the marks by which the Antichrist is to be recognized (2 Th 2:6, 8), and since this prophecy has been clearly fulfilled in the history and development of the Roman Papacy, it is Scripture which reveals that the Papacy is the Antichrist.
- ^ "Roman Catholic". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on September 27, 2009. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
- ^ Nolting, Paul F., The Antichrist (part 1) Archived May 22, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ lutheran (2011-12-20). "The Brief Statement of 1932 | Church of the Lutheran Confession". Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ 666 Truth.
- ^ Bacchiocchi, Samuele (July 6, 2002), "Islam and The Papacy in Prophecy", Endtime Issues (86), Berrien Springs, Michigan: Biblical perspectives, archived from the original on August 22, 2013, retrieved August 16, 2018.
- ^ Paulien, Jon; Bacchiocchi, Samuele (October 17, 2002), "September 11 and God's Mysterious Mercy", End Time Issues (90), Berrien Springs, Michigan: Biblical perspectives, archived from the original on April 5, 2018, retrieved August 16, 2018.
- ^ "Reformed", Eschatology, Mountain Retreat.
- ^ "Antichrist Today", Present Truth, XVII (2).
- ^ PapalEncyclicals: Lateran Council V, Session 11 They are in no way to presume to preach or declare a fixed time for future evils, the coming of antichrist or the precise day of judgment; for Truth says, it is not for us to know times or seasons which the Father has fixed by his own authority. Let it be known that those who have hitherto dared to declare such things are liars, and that because of them not a little authority has been taken away from those who preach the truth .
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 769
- ^ a b c d Catechism of the Catholic Church 675
- ^ "SIN – JewishEncyclopedia.com". www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ IX, Pope BI Pius (1873-01-06). "Quartus Supra". Papal Encyclicals. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ "E Supremi (October 4, 1903) | PIUS X". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ Vatican.Va: John Paul II, August 18, 1985 Address
- ^ "Angelus, 11 March 2012 | BENEDICT XVI". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ Vatican.Va: Benedict XVI, General Audience of March 11, 2012
- ^ "Faith is not casuistry (21 February 2014) | Francis". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ "Fear of resurrection (19 September 2014) | Francis". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ "The only criterion (7 January 2016) | Francis". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ "Letter of Love (11 November 2016) | Francis". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ O'Brien, M. J. (1880). An Historical and Critical Account of the So-called Prophecy of St. Malachy Regarding the Succession of Popes. M.H. Gill and Son.
- ^ Sheen, Fulton J. (1951). Communism and the Conscience of the West. Country Life Press. p. 17. Retrieved October 24, 2015.
- ^ Pronechen, Joseph (February 10, 2019). "Fulton Sheen's Clear Warning About the Anti-Christ". National Catholic Register. Irondale, Alabama: EWTN. Retrieved October 7, 2019.
- ^ a b c "Does the Russian Orthodox Church Accept the "Mysteries" of the Heretics?". Orthodox Ethos. April 22, 2016. Retrieved March 9, 2022.
- ^ "Smartphones are paving way for the Antichrist, says head of Russian church". The Telegraph. 8 January 2019. Archived from the original on 2022-01-11.
- The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York City: Columbia University. 1935. Archivedfrom the original on February 12, 2008.
- ^ "О чувственном и духовном антихристе" (in Russian). 25 March 2021.
- ^ Korihor is directly referred to in The Book of Mormon as an anti-Christ (Alma 30:6)
- Intellectual Reserve, Inc.
- ^
Levillain, Philippe (2002). The Papacy: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. Psychology Press. p. 832. ISBN 978-0415922302. Retrieved July 17, 2015.
[Pope John II] received from Justinian a letter dated June 6, 533 [...]. In his letter, Justinian proclaimed that the Holy See is the leader of all the holy churches and confirmed the need for all churches to join together with Rome [...].
- ^ "The 1260 days of Daniel 7". Archived from the original on 2018-12-03. Retrieved 2018-12-07.
- ^ The Great Controversy by Ellen White, p. 266. "Chap. 15 – The Bible and the French Revolution".
- ISBN 1-57847-041-2.
- ^ "Articles – White Horse Media". White Horse Media.
- ISBN 0-8163-1923-5. Archived from the originalon May 31, 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2006.
- ^ Paulien, John (2006) "The 1260 Days in the Book of Revelation Archived 2015-10-27 at the Wayback Machine"
- ISBN 978-1403969279.
- ISBN 978-0810003798.
- ^ a b Net Bible: Man of sin Archived July 7, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on II Thess., Nicene-Post Nicene Fathers
- ^ See footnotes in Revelation 7 and 13 in the Scofield Reference Bible, 1917
- ^ a b c "ARMILUS – JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ ISSN 1875-9823.
- ^ Sahih al-Bukhari 3439
- ^ OCLC 238821310.
- ^ ISBN 9780199340378. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4.
- ^ Martin 2004: 421
- ^ Glasse 2001: 280
- ^ [Quran 3:55]
- ^ Sahih Muslim, 41:7023
- ^ Momen 1985: 166–168
- ISBN 0-7591-0190-6.
- ISBN 978-0-231-70094-8.
- ^ Muhammad Ali. (1992) The Antichrist and Gog and Magog Archived 2018-07-01 at the Wayback Machine, Ohio: Ahmadiyya Anjuman-i Ishāʿat-i Islām
- ISBN 978-0-231-70094-8.
- ^ Francis Robinson.'The British Empire and the Muslim World' in Judith Brown, Wm Roger Louis (ed) The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV: The Twentieth Century. Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 411. "At their most extreme religious strategies for dealing with the Christian presence might involve attacking Christian revelation at its heart, as did the Punjabi Muslim, Ghulam Ahmad (d. 1908), who founded the Ahmadiyya missionary sect. He claimed that he was the messiah of the Jewish and Muslim tradition; the figure known as Jesus of Nazareth had not died on the cross but survived to die in Kashmir."
- ^ Yohanan Friedmann. Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and its Medieval Background Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 114. "He [Ghulam Ahmad] realized the centrality of the crucifixion and of the doctrine of vicarious atonement in the Christian dogma, and understood that his attack on these two was an attack on the innermost core of Christianity "
- ^ Kambiz GhaneaBassiri. A History of Islam in America: From the New World to the New World Order Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 208. "Ghulam Ahmad denied the historicity of Jesus' crucifixion and claimed that Jesus had fled to India where he died a natural death in Kashmir. In this way, he sought to neutralize Christian soteriologies of Christ and to demonstrate the superior rationality of Islam."
- ISBN 978-0-231-70094-8. "Proclaiming himself as reformer of Islam, and wanting to undermine the validity of Christianity, Ahmad went for the theological jugular, the foundational teachings of the Christian faith. 'The death of Jesus Christ' explained one of Ahmad's biographers 'was to be the death-knell of the Christian onslaught against Islam'. As Ahmad argued, the idea of Jesus dying in old age, rather than death on a cross, as taught by the gospel writers, 'invalidates the divinity of Jesus and the doctrine of Atonement'."
- ^ 'Abdu'l-Baha, Abbas Effendi. "Some Answered Questions". bahai.org. Retrieved April 20, 2017.
- ^ a b card. G. Biffi. "Russia Will Punish the World – 3rd Secret of Fatima Revealed". Gloria.tv. Archived from the original on September 7, 2018 – via radiovaticana.org.
The cardinal speaks often on the theme of the Antichrist. The Times of London reported in 2004 that the Cardinal described the Antichrist as "walking among us".
- ^ Pronechen, J. (February 24, 2017). "Vladimir Soloviev, the Mystic Admired by Popes". ncregister.com. Archived from the original on March 2, 2017. Retrieved September 5, 2018.
- ^ Giacomo Biffi. "Ammonimento sull'Anticristo del cardinale Giacomo Biffi".
- ^ Giacomo Biffi (10 August 2015). "L'Anticristo, una persona perbene. La lezione (inascoltata) del grande Solov'ëv spiegata da Biffi".
- ^ Dwight (Reverend), Joseph (November 10, 2013). "The Masonic Plan For The Destruction Of The Catholic Church". Retrieved September 29, 2020.
Bibliography
- Berry, Rev. Elwood (1921). . The Apocalypse of St. John. The Catholic Church Supply House.
- Froom, Le Roy Edwin (1948). Pre-Reformation and Reformation Restoration, and Second Departure (PDF). The Prophetic Faith of our Fathers: The Historical Development of Prophetic Interpretation. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: The Review and Herald Publishing Association.
- Robert, Yarbrough (2008). 1–3 John. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-0801026874.
- Maas, Anthony John (1907). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company. . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).
- Lietaert Peerbolte, L. J. (1966). The Antecedents of Antichrist: A Traditio-Historical Study of the Earliest Christian Views on Eschatological Opponents. Brill. ISBN 9004104550.
- Foxe, John (1583). The Acts and Monuments, Book II. R.B. Seeley and W. Burnside, sold by L. & G. Seeley. p. 121. Retrieved June 6, 2010.
- Jerome (1893) [347–420]. "Letter to Pope Damasus". In Schaff, Philip (ed.). A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. 2nd series. Vol. VI. Henry Wace. New York: The Christian Literature Company. p. 19. Retrieved June 7, 2010.
- Jerome (1893b) [347–420]. "The Dialogue against the Luciferians". In Schaff, Philip (ed.). A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. 2nd series. Vol. VI. Henry Wace. New York: The Christian Literature Company. p. 334. Retrieved June 7, 2010.
- Jerome (1893c) [347–420]. "Against the Pelagians, Book I". In Schaff, Philip (ed.). A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. 2nd series. Vol. VI. Henry Wace. New York: The Christian Literature Company. p. 449. Retrieved June 7, 2010.
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- McGinn, Bernard (1994). Antichrist: Two Thousand Years of the Human Fascination With Evil. New York: HarperCollins.
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External links
The dictionary definition of antichrist at Wiktionary Quotations related to antichrist at Wikiquote Media related to Antichrist at Wikimedia Commons
- Of Antichrist and His Ruin (1692) by John Bunyan. Online as part of the Acacia John Bunyan Online Library.
- Lerner, Robert E. (March 22, 2007). "Antichrist". Encyclopædia Britannica (online ed.).
- Knight, Kevin (ed.). "Against Heresies: Book V: Chapter 25". Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 1. Translated by Alexander Roberts; William Rambaut. Buffalo, New York: New Advent.
- Ginzberg, Louis (1901–1906). "Antichrist". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
- Lutheran Scholarly Works on the Antichrist Texts on Wikisource:
- Davidson, Samuel (1878). "Antichrist". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (9th ed.). pp. 124–127.
- Bousset, Wilhelm (1911). "Antichrist". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 121–123.
- Maas, Anthony John (1907). "Antichrist". Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1.
- "Antichrist". Easton's Bible Dictionary. 1897.
- Encyclopaedia Biblica. Vol. 1. 1899. .
- Nietzsche, Friedrich (2006) [1918]. . Translated by Mencken, Henry Louis.