Antillean Creole
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Antillean Creole | |
---|---|
kreyòl, kréyòl, kréyol, kwéyòl, patwa | |
Native to | French Antilles (esp. Guadeloupe, Martinique), Dominica, Grenada, Saint Lucia, Haiti, Trinidad and Tobago[1] |
Native speakers | (13 million cited 1998–2001)[2] |
Glottolog | less1242 |
Linguasphere | 51-AAC-cc (varieties:
51-AAC-cca to -cck) |
IETF | cpf-029 |
Antillean Creole (also known as Lesser Antillean Creole) is a
Geographical situation
There are two main geographical and linguistic groups in the Antilles or Caribbean Islands: the Greater Antilles and the Lesser Antilles. Intercomprehension between these two groups is possible, but despite a large proportion of shared vocabulary and largely similar grammatical functioning, it is limited by varying key vocabulary and different words for basic grammar. Nevertheless, it's easy to begin to understand each other completely, as long as one of the two has a basic knowledge of the other's language.
Antillean Creole is spoken natively, to varying degrees, in
In a number of countries (including Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Brazil (
Since the 1970s, there has been a literary revival of Creole in the French-speaking islands of the Lesser Antilles, with writers such as Raphaël Confiant and Monchoachi employing the language. Édouard Glissant has written theoretically and poetically about its significance and its history.
History
Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc was a French trader and adventurer in the Caribbean who established the first permanent French colony, Saint-Pierre, on the island of Martinique in 1635. Belain sailed to the Caribbean in 1625, hoping to establish a French settlement on the island of St. Christopher (St. Kitts). In 1626, he returned to France, where he won the support of Cardinal Richelieu to establish French colonies in the region. Richelieu became a shareholder in the Compagnie de Saint-Christophe, created to accomplish that with d'Esnambuc at its head. The company was not particularly successful, and Richelieu had it reorganised as the Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique. In 1635, d'Esnambuc sailed to Martinique with 100 French settlers to clear land for sugarcane plantations.
After six months on Martinique, d'Esnambuc returned to
The French permanently settled on Martinique and Guadeloupe after being driven off
Despite the long history of British rule, Grenada's French heritage is still evident by the number of French
In 1642, the
In 1690, French woodcutters from Martinique and Guadeloupe begin to set up timber camps to supply the French islands with wood and gradually become permanent settlers. France had a colony for several years and imported slaves from West Africa, Martinique and Guadeloupe to work on its plantations. The Antillean Creole language developed.
France formally ceded possession of Dominica to Great Britain in 1763. The latter established a small colony on the island in 1805. As a result, Dominica uses English as an official language, but Antillean Creole is still spoken as a secondary language because of Dominica's location between the French-speaking departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique.
In
Trinidad's population jumped to over 15,000 by the end of 1789, from just under 1,400 in 1777. In 1797, Trinidad became a British crown colony, despite its French-speaking population.
Origin of creole
Antillean Creole began as the pidgin "baragouin" in 1635.[6] It was spoken by French settlers, the Africans they enslaved, and Aboriginal peoples that resided on the islands.[6] It originated in the Guadeloupe and Martinique areas of the Lesser Antilles.[7] It was not until 1700, when there was an increase in African influences, that this pidgin transitioned into the creole that it is today.[6] The formation of this creole was influenced by many different dialects and languages. These include dialects of French, other European languages, Carib (both Karina and Arawakan), and African languages.[7]
Due to the influences from its origins, this creole has some distinctive linguistic features. Features of French included in Lesser Antillean Creole include infinitive forms of verbs, the use of only the masculine noun forms, oblique pronouns, and its subject to verb word order.[6] Features from African languages include their verbal marking system as well as providing a West-African substrate.[6] Other features of this creole also include doubling to emphasize a sentence, the word "point" to inflect the negative, and the non-distinguished adverbs and adjectives.[6]
The language emerged in a context of plantation slavery in the
Phonology
Consonants
Labial | Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n
|
ŋ | ||||
Plosive/ affricate |
voiceless | p | t
|
t͡ʃ~c | k | ||
voiced | b | d
|
d͡ʒ~ɟ | ɡ | |||
Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | ɣ | h | |
voiced | v | z | ʒ | ||||
Approximant | l
|
( ɹ)[a]
|
j | w |
- ^a This sound occurs on islands where the official language is English in certain loanwords e.g radio /ɹadjo/.
- The uvular r /ʁ/ only occurs on islands wherein French is an official language. Otherwise, where the uvular r would occur where other dialects use /w/. Furthermore, this sound is usually pronounced as a velar fricative and is much softer than the European French ⟨r⟩.[clarification needed]
Vowels
|
|
Orthography
|
|
There is some variation in orthography between the islands. In St. Lucia, Dominica and Martinique 'dj' and 'tj' are used whereas in Guadeloupe 'gy' and 'ky' are used. These represent differences in pronunciations. Several words may be pronounced in various ways depending on the region:
The letter 'r' in St. Lucia and Dominica represents the English /
Grammar
Person | Pronoun | Alternate | Weak
Form |
English |
---|---|---|---|---|
1sg | mwen | an, man, mon1 | m, ng, n2 | I, me |
2sg | ou | - | w3 | you |
3sg | i | li4 | y3 | he, she, it |
1pl | nou | - | n3 | we, us |
2pl | zòt | zò, hòt, hò | z3,h3 | you |
3pl | yo | yé | y3 | they, them |
- Mon is used in Dominica and in Grenada #man is used in Martinique. An is used in Guadeloupe, but less so in the latter.
- m, ng, and n are contracted forms of mwen which occur before certain verb particles: Mwen pa → m'a, mwen ka → ng'a or n'a mwen kay → ng'ay or n'ay
- w and y occur after a vowel: Nonm-lan wè i → Nonm-lan wè'y, Koumonon ou? → Koumonon'w?
- li occurs after consonants: Ou konnèt i? → Ou konnèt li?
Personal pronouns in Antillean Creole are invariable so they do not inflect for case as in European languages such as French or English. This means that mwen, for example, can mean I, me or my; yo can mean they, them, their etc.
English | General | Guadeloupe | Iles des Saintes |
---|---|---|---|
my | mwen | an-mwen | an-mwen |
your | ou/ w | a-w | òw |
his, her, its | li/ y | a-y | èy |
our | nou | an-nou | an-nou |
your | zot | a-zòt | a-zòt |
their | yo | a-yo | a-yo |
Possessive adjectives are placed after the noun; kay mwen 'my house', manman'w 'your mother'
'ou' and 'li' are used after nouns ending in a consonant and 'w' and 'y' after nouns ending in a vowel. All other possessive adjectives are invariable.
Kaz ou - Your house, Kouto'w - Your knife
Madanm li - His wife, Sésé'y - Her sister
Indefinite article
The indefinite article is placed before the noun and can be pronounced as on, an, yon, yan. The word yonn means "one".
On chapo, Yon wavèt
An moun, Yan tòti
Definite article
This exemples doesn't work for
In Creole, there are five definite articles (la, lan, a, an, nan) which are placed after the nouns they modify, in contrast to French. The final syllable of the preceding word determines which is used with which nouns.
If the last sound is an
Antillean Creole | French | English |
---|---|---|
kravat-la | la cravate | the tie |
liv-la | le livre | the book |
kay-la | la maison | the house |
If the last sound is an oral consonant and is preceded by a nasal vowel, it becomes lan:
Antillean Creole | French | English |
---|---|---|
lamp-lan | la lampe | the lamp |
nonm-lan | l'homme | the man |
silans-lan | le silence | the silence |
If the last sound is an
Antillean Creole | French | English |
---|---|---|
kouto-a | le couteau | the knife |
péyi-a | le pays | the country |
mi-a | le mais | the corn |
If a word ends in a nasal vowel, it becomes an:
Antillean Creole | French | English |
---|---|---|
van-an | le vent | the wind |
chyen-an | le chien | the dog |
pon-an | le pont | the bridge |
If the last sound is a
Antillean Creole | French | English |
---|---|---|
machin-nan | la voiture | the car |
machin-lan | ||
moun-nan | les gens | the people |
moun-lan | ||
fanm-nan | la femme | the woman |
fanm-lan |
Note that in Guadeloupean Creole there is no agreement of sounds between the noun and definite article and la is used for all nouns
Demonstrative article
Like the definite article this is placed after the noun. It varies widely by region.
Region | Demonstrative | Example | English |
---|---|---|---|
St.Lucia | sala
sa'a |
motoka sala | that/this car |
Guadeloupe | lasa | boug lasa | that/this guy |
Martinique | tala/taa | tab tala/taa | that/this table |
Creole | Negative | Tense | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ø | pa |
Preterite/ Present Perfect | I vini | He came
He has come |
I pa vini | He didn't come
He hasn't come |
ka | pa ka
pa'a |
Present Progressive | Mwen ka palé
Ng'a palé |
I am speaking | Mwen pa ka palé
Mwen pa'a palé M'a ka palé |
I wasn't speaking |
ké | pé ké | Future | Ou ké ay/alé | You will go | Ou pé ké ay/alé | I won't go |
kay | pa kay | Immediate Future | Mwen kay alé
Ng'ay alé |
I'm going to go | Mwen pa kay alé
M'a kay alé |
I am not going |
té | pa té | Past/ Past Perfect | Nou té di | We said
We had said |
Nou pa té di |
We didn't say
We hadn't said |
té ka | pa té ka | Progressive Past | Zòt té ka manjé | Y'all were eating | Zòt pa té ka manjé | Y'all were not eating |
té ké
té'é |
pa té ké | Conditional | Yo té ké enmen
Yo té'é enmen |
They would like | Yo pa té ké enmen
Yo pa té'é enmen |
They would not like |
té kay/ké | pa té kay/ké | Conditional | An té kay/ké pran | I would take | An pa té kay/ké | I would not go |
soti | 'have just' | Man sòti rivé | I've just arrived | Man pa sòti rive | I have not just gone out | |
té soti | 'had just' | Albè té sòti sòti | Albert had just gone out | Albè té sòti sòti | Albert had not just gone gone out | |
ja | p'oko
po'o |
'already' | Sé timanmay-la ja fè | The children already did | Sé timanmay-la p'òkò fè
Sé timanmay-la pò'ò fè |
The children have not already done
The children had not yet done |
té ja | potoko/pokote | Hò/zot té ja koumansé | Y'all had already started | Hò/zot potoko/pokote koumansé | Y'all had not already started
Y'all had not started yet |
Verbs in Creole are invariable and unlike French or English have no inflection to distinguish tenses. A series of particles placed before the verb indicate tense and aspect. There is no Subjunctive mood.
Vocabulary
The vocabulary of Antillean Creole is based mostly on French, with many contributions from West African languages, Spanish, English and Amerindian languages.
Varieties
Dominican Creole French
Dominican Creole French is the generally-spoken language in Dominica.[8] Its mutual intelligibility rate with other varieties of Antillean Creole is almost 100%. Its syntactic, grammatical and lexical features are virtually identical to that of Martinican Creole, but like its Saint Lucian counterpart, it has more English loanwords than the Martinican variety. People who speak Haitian Creole can also understand Dominican Creole French. Even though there are a number of distinctive features, they are mutually intelligible.
Like the other Caribbean Creoles, Dominican French Creole combines a syntax of African and Carib origin with a vocabulary primarily derived from French.
Saint Lucian Creole French
Like the other Caribbean creoles, Saint Lucian French Creole combines a syntax of African and Carib origin with a vocabulary primarily derived from French. The language can be considered to be mutually intelligible with French creoles of the Lesser Antilles and is related to Haitian Creole, which has nonetheless a number of distinctive features.
It is still widely spoken in Saint Lucia. In the mid-19th century, migrants took the language with them to Panama, where it is now moribund.
Grenadian Creole French
Historically, French, or French Creole, was the language of the large majority of the inhabitants, enslaved Africans and estate owners. Though the new British administrators spoke English, French was still predominant.
, Grenada does not have Kwéyòl-speaking neighbours to keep the language alive.Additionally, the language is not taught in schools.
Trinidadian French Creole
The Cedula of Population of 1783 laid the foundation and growth of the population of Trinidad. French planters and the Africans they enslaved, free coloureds and mulattos, from the French Antilles of Martinique, Grenada, Guadeloupe and Dominica, migrated to Trinidad during the French Revolution. The immigrants establishing local communities of Blanchisseuse, Champs Fleurs, Paramin, Cascade, Carenage, Laventille, etc. Trinidad's population, which numbered less than 1,400 in 1777, soared to over 15,000 by the end of 1789.
In 1797, Trinidad became a British crown colony, with a French-speaking and Patois-speaking population. Today, Trinidadian French Creole can be found spoken in regional pockets among the elders, particularly in the villages of Paramin and Lopinot.
Example vocabulary
- Hello – Bonjou (from "bonjour") pronounced [bonʒu].
- Hello – Sa i di-a (more casual) pronounced [sa i di a].
- Please – Souplé (shortened version of "Si ou plé / Si'w plé") pronounced [suple].
- Thank you – Mèsi (from "merci") pronounced [mɛsi].
- Thank you very much – Mèsi an pil pronounced [mɛsi ɑ̃ pil], Mèsi an lo pronounced [mɛsi ɑ̃ lo], or Mèsi an chay' pronounced [mɛsi ɑ̃ ʃaj].
- Excuse me – Eskizé mwen (from "excusez-moi") pronounced [ɛskize mwɛ̃].
- Rain is falling – Lapli ka tonbé pronounced [lapli ka tɔ̃be], or Lapli ka bat' (stronger) pronounced [lapli ka bat], Lapli ap tonbé (Haitian) pronounced [lapli ap tɔ̃be].
- Today is a nice day – Jòdi-a bèl pronounced [ʒɔdi a bɛl]
- How are you ? – Ka'w fè? (Guadeloupe) pronounced [ka u fɛ], Sa'w fè? (Martinique) pronounced [sa u fɛ], Sa kap fèt? (Haitian) pronounced [sa kap fɛt] - often shortened to "Sakafèt'?" pronounced [sakafɛt].
- Brother, Sister - Frè pronounced [fwɛ], Sè pronounced [sɛ]
- Going to the beach – Ay (o)bòdlanmè-a pronounced [aj obɔdlɑ̃mɛa]
- My place - Akaz (an) mwen (Guadeloupe) pronounced [akaz ɑ̃ mwɛ̃], Lakay mwen (Martinique) pronounced [lakaj mwɛ̃]
- I don't care - Mpa kyè (Haitian) pronounced [mpa kjɛ], Man san fouté (FWI) pronounced [mɑ̃ sɑ̃ fute]
- Girlfriend (or female relative) - Manzèl pronounced [mɑ̃zɛl]
- Boyfriend (or male relative) - Boug pronounced [buɡ]
- (To) engage in a fight - Goumé épi moun pronounced [ɡume epi mun]
Sample texts
Below are samples of St. Lucian Creole French taken from a folktale.[10]
Pwenmyé ki pasé sé Konpè Kochon. I di, "Konpè Lapen, sa ou ka fè la?"
Konpè Lapen di'y, "Dé ti twou yanm ng'a (mwen ka) fouyé bay ich mwen pou mwen bay ich mwen manjé."
Konpè Kochon di, "Mé, Konpè, ou kouyon, wi! Ou vlé di mwen sa kay fè yanm?"
An English translation from the same source:
First to pass was Konpè Kochon (Mister Pig). He said, "Konpè Lapen (Mister Rabbit), what are you doing there?"
Konpè Lapen told him, "I am digging a few holes to plant yams to feed my children."
Konpè Kochon said, "But, Konpè, you're too foolish! You mean to tell me you can grow yams there?"
References
- ^ Ethnologue codes Guadeloupean Creole French (spoken in Guadeloupe and Martinique) and Saint Lucian Creole French (spoken in Dominica and Saint Lucia) distinctly, with the respective ISO 639-3 codes: gcf and acf. However, it notes that their rate of comprehension is 90%, which would qualify them as dialects of a single language.
- ^ Guadeloupean Creole / Martinican Creole at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Saint Lucian / Dominican Creole at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
San Miguel Creole French (Panama) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) - )
- ^ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Languages of Dominica. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, SIL International, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.
- ISBN 978-0-226-31041-1. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
Henri Guedon.
- ^ ISSN 0920-9034.
- ^ OCLC 758345312.
- ^ "The Creole Language of Dominica". Retrieved 31 March 2014.
- ^ Ethnologue report for language code:acf
- ^ Konpè Lapen mandé on favè = Konpè Lapen asks a favor: a Saint Lucian folk tale. 1985. Vieux-Fort, Saint Lucia: SIL. 10 p.
External links
- Antillean Creole Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)