Antioch
Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου Antiochia ad Orontem | |
Events | Roman–Persian Wars, First Crusade |
---|---|
Site notes | |
Excavation dates | 1932–1939 |
Condition | Mostly buried |
Antioch on the Orontes (
Antioch was founded near the end of the fourth century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of
The city was also the main center of
Geography
Two routes from the Mediterranean Sea, lying through the Orontes river gorge and the Belen Pass, converge in the plain of the Antioch Lake, now called Lake Amik, and are met there by
- the road from the Amanian Gate (Baghche Pass) and western Commagene, which descends the valley of the Karasu to the Afrin River,
- the roads from eastern Commagene and the Euphratean crossings at Samosata (now Samsat) and Apamea Zeugma (Birejik), which descend the valleys of the Afrin and the Queiq, and
- the road from the Euphratean ford at Thapsacus, which skirts the fringe of the Syrian steppe. A single route proceeds south in the Orontes valley.[7]
Prehistory
A settlement called "Meroe" pre-dated Antioch. A shrine of the goddess Anat, called by Herodotus the "Persian Artemis", was located here. This site was included in the eastern suburbs of Antioch. There was a village on the spur of Mount Silpius named Io, or Iopolis. This name was always adduced as evidence by Antiochenes (e.g. Libanius) eager to affiliate themselves to the Attic Ionians—an eagerness which is illustrated by the Athenian types used on the city's coins. Io may have been a small early colony of trading Greeks (Javan). John Malalas also mentions an archaic village, Bottia, in the plain by the river.[7]
Foundation by Seleucus I
Alexander the Great is said to have camped on the site of Antioch and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus; it lay in the northwest of the future city.[7] This account is found only in the writings of Libanius, a fourth-century orator from Antioch,[8] and may be legend intended to enhance Antioch's status. But the story is not unlikely in itself.[9]
After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his generals, the Diadochi, divided up the territory he had conquered. After the Battle of Ipsos in 301 BC, Seleucus I Nicator won the territory of Syria, and he proceeded to found four "sister cities" in northwestern Syria, one of which was Antioch, a city named in honor of his father Antiochus;[10] according to the Suda, it might be named after his son Antiochus.[11] He is reputed to have built sixteen Antiochs.[12]
Seleucus founded Antioch on a site chosen through ritual means. An eagle, the bird of Zeus, had been given a piece of sacrificial meat and the city was founded on the site to which the eagle carried the offering. Seleucus did this on the 22nd day of the month of Artemísios in the twelfth year of his reign, equivalent to May 300 BC.[13] Antioch soon rose above Seleucia Pieria to become the Syrian capital.
Hellenistic age
The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the grid plan of Alexandria by the architect Xenarius. Libanius describes the first building and arrangement of this city (i. p. 300. 17).
The citadel was on Mount Silpius and the city lay mainly on the low ground to the north, fringing the river. Two great colonnaded streets intersected in the centre. Shortly afterwards a second quarter was laid out, probably on the east and by Antiochus I Soter, which, from an expression of Strabo, appears to have been the native, as contrasted with the Greek, town. It was enclosed by a wall of its own.[7]
In the Orontes, north of the city, lay a large island, and on this Seleucus II Callinicus began a third walled "city", which was finished by Antiochus III the Great. A fourth and last quarter was added by Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BC); thenceforth Antioch was known as Tetrapolis. From west to east the whole was about 6 kilometres (4 miles) in diameter and a little less from north to south. This area included many large gardens.[7]
The new city was populated by a mix of local settlers that Athenians brought from the nearby city of Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews (who were given full status from the beginning). According to ancient tradition, Antioch was settled by 5,500 Athenians and Macedonians, together with an unknown number of native Syrians. This number probably refers to free adult citizens, so that the total number of free Greek settlers including women and children was probably between 17,000 and 25,000.[14][9]
About 6 kilometres (4 miles) west and beyond the suburb Heraclea lay the paradise of Daphne, a park of woods and waters, in the midst of which rose a great temple to the Pythian Apollo, also founded by Seleucus I and enriched with a cult-statue of the god, as Musagetes, by Bryaxis. A companion sanctuary of Hecate was constructed underground by Diocletian. The beauty and the lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over the ancient world; and indeed Antioch as a whole shared in both these titles to fame.[15]
Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid Empire under Antiochus I, its counterpart in the east being Seleucia; but its paramount importance dates from the battle of Ancyra (240 BC), which shifted the Seleucid centre of gravity from Anatolia, and led indirectly to the rise of Pergamon.[16]
The Seleucids reigned from Antioch. We know little of it in the
The epithet "Golden" suggests that the external appearance of Antioch was impressive, but the city needed constant restoration owing to the seismic disturbances to which the district has always been subjected. The first great earthquake in recorded history was related by the native chronicler John Malalas. It occurred in 148 BC and did immense damage.[16][18]
Local politics were turbulent. In the many dissensions of the Seleucid house the population took sides, and frequently rose in rebellion, for example against Alexander Balas in 147 BC, and Demetrius II Nicator in 129 BC. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews, punished his capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles of the Seleucid house, Antioch turned against its feeble rulers, invited Tigranes the Great to occupy the city in 83 BC, tried to unseat Antiochus XIII Asiaticus in 65 BC, and petitioned Rome against his restoration in the following year. Antioch's wish prevailed, and it passed with Syria to the Roman Republic in 64 BC, but remained a civitas libera.[16]
Roman period
Roman rule before Constantine
The Roman emperors favored the city from the first moments, seeing it as a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could be, because of the isolated position of Egypt. To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. Julius Caesar visited it in 47 BC, and confirmed its freedom. A great temple to Jupiter Capitolinus rose on Silpius, probably at the insistence of Octavian, whose cause the city had espoused. A forum of Roman type was laid out. Tiberius built two long colonnades on the south towards Silpius.[16]
Strabo, writing in the reign of Augustus and the first years of Tiberius, states that Antioch is not much smaller than Seleucia and Alexandria; Alexandria had been said by Diodorus Siculus in the mid-first century BC to have 300,000 free inhabitants, which would mean that Antioch was about this size in Strabo's time.[14]
One of the most famous Roman additions to the city was its
An earthquake that shook Antioch in AD 37 caused the emperor Caligula to send two senators to report on the condition of the city. Another quake followed in the next reign.[16]
Following the First Jewish–Roman War, Titus rejected the Antiochians' plea to expel the Jews, reasoning that with their city Jerusalem destroyed, they had nowhere else to turn, and no one was willing to accept them. He declined the Antiochians' request to destroy the copper tablets containing the privileges of the Jews and their autonomy. However, the Roman governor aided the Antiochians in compelling the Jews to engage in idolatry and violate the Sabbath. Vespasian, the Roman emperor, even constructed a theater on the former synagogue site in Daphne near Antioch, further aggravating the situation with an inscription boasting that it was funded with Jewish spoils.[22]
In 115 AD, during Trajan's travel there during his war against Parthia, the whole site was convulsed by a huge earthquake. The landscape altered, and the emperor himself was forced to take shelter in the circus for several days.[16] He and his successor restored the city, but the population was reduced to less than 400,000 inhabitants and many sections of the city were abandoned.
In 256 AD, the town was suddenly raided by the Persians under Shapur I, and many of the people were slain in the theatre.[16] It was recaptured by the Roman emperor Valerian the following year.
Christianity
Between 252 and 300 AD,
John Chrysostom writes that when Ignatius of Antioch was bishop in the city, the dêmos, probably meaning the number of free adult men and women without counting children and slaves, numbered 200,000.[14] In a letter written in 363, Libanius says the city contains 150,000 anthrôpoi, a word which would ordinarily mean all human beings of any age, sex, or social status, seemingly indicating a decline in the population since the first century.[14][30] Chrysostom also says in one of his homilies on the Gospel of Matthew, which were delivered between 386 and 393, that in his own time there were 100,000 Christians in Antioch, a figure which may refer to orthodox Christians who belonged to the Great Church as opposed to members of other groups such as Arians and Apollinarians, or to all Christians of any persuasion.[14]
Age of Julian and Valens
When the
After being advised that the bones of third-century martyred bishop Babylas were suppressing the oracle of Apollo at Daphne,[31] he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual. He also shut up Constantine's Great Church, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident.[32][33]
Julian found much else about which to criticize the Antiochene; Julian had wanted the empire's cities to be more self-managing, as they had been some
The Antiochenes in turn hated Julian for worsening the food shortage with the burden of his
Julian's piety was distasteful to the Antiochenes, even to those who kept the old religion. Julian's brand of paganism was very much unique to himself, with little support outside the most educated
The emperor's high-handed, severe methods and his rigid administration prompted Antiochene lampoons about, among other things, Julian's unfashionably pointed beard.[34]
Julian's successor,
Theodosius and after
In 387 AD, there was a great sedition caused by a new tax levied by order of Theodosius I, and the city was punished by the loss of its metropolitan status.[16] Theodosius placed Antioch under Constantinople's rule when he divided the Roman Empire.
Antioch and its port,
During the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628 the Emperor Heraclius confronted the invading Persian army of Khosrow II outside Antioch in 613. The Byzantines were defeated by forces under the generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin Vahmanzadegan at the Battle of Antioch, after which the city fell to the Sassanians, together with much of Syria and eastern Anatolia.
Antioch gave its name to a
Arab conquest and Byzantine reconquest
In 637, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor
In 969,
As the empire disintegrated rapidly before the
Crusader era
The Crusaders'
Consolidation of the Principality
In 1100,
Bohemond laid siege to Dyrrachium but capitulated in September 1108 and was forced to accede to a peace accord, the Treaty of Devol which stipulated that Bohemond was to hold Antioch for the remainder of his life as the emperor's subject and the Greek patriarch was to be restored to power in the city. However, Tancred refused to honor the Treaty of Deabolis in which Bohemond swore an oath, and it is not until 1156 that it truly became a vassal state of the Byzantine Empire.[45][46] Six months after the Treaty of Deabolis Bohemond died, and Tancred remained regent of Antioch until his death during a typhoid epidemic in 1112.
After the death of Tancred, the principality passed to
Antioch was again ruled by a regency, firstly being Baldwin II, after his daughter and Bohemond II's wife,
The marriage took place in 1136 between the 21-year-old Raymond and the 9-year-old Constance.Immediately after assuming control, Raymond was involved in conflicts with the
Second Crusade
Nur ad-Din Zangi attacked Antioch in both 1147 and 1148 and succeeded during the second venture in occupying most of the territory east of the
Louis refused to help Antioch defend against the Turks and to lead an expedition against Aleppo, and instead decided to finish his pilgrimage to Jerusalem rather than focus on the military aspect of the Crusades. With Louis quickly leaving Antioch again and the Crusaders returning home in 1149.[52]
With Raymond dead and
In 1156 Raynald claimed that the Byzantine emperor
In 1160 Raynald was captured by Muslims and held captive for 16 years, with Raynald disposed of for a long time, the patriarch Aimery became the new regent, chosen by Baldwin III. To further consolidate his own claim over Antioch, Manuel chose
One year later,
Third Crusade
While travelling on crusade Emperor
Henry II, Count of Champagne travelled to Lesser Armenia and managed to persuade Leo that in exchange for Antioch, renouncing its overlordship to Lesser Armenia and to release Bohemond, who died in 1201. With the death of Bohemond III there followed a 15-year struggle for power of Antioch, between Tripoli and Lesser Armenia. According to the rules of primogeniture Leo's great nephew Raymond-Roupen was the rightful heir of Antioch, and Leo's position was supported by the pope. On the other hand, however, the city commune of Antioch supported Bohemond IV of Antioch, on the grounds that he was the closest blood relative to the last ruling prince, Bohemond III. In 1207 Bohemond IV installed a Greek patriarch in Antioch, despite the East–West Schism, under the help of Aleppo, Bohemond IV drove Leo out of Antioch.[62][63]
Fifth Crusade
The calling of the
Fall of Antioch
In 1268, Baibars besieged Antioch, capturing the city on May 18. Baibars promised to spare the lives of the inhabitants, but broke his promise and razed the city, killing or enslaving nearly the entire population upon their surrender.[66] Antioch's ruler, Prince Bohemond VI was then left with no territories except the County of Tripoli. Without any southern fortifications and with Antioch isolated it could not withstand the onslaught of resurgent Muslim forces, and with the fall of the city, the remainder of northern Syria eventually capitulated, ending the Latin presence in Syria.[67] The Mamluk armies killed or enslaved every Christian in Antioch.[68] In 1355 it still had a considerable population, but by 1432 there were only about 300 inhabited houses within its walls, mostly occupied by Turcomans.[69]
Ottoman period
Antioch was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire with the conquest of Syria in 1516. It formed a sub-province (sancak) or tax collectorship (muhassıllık) of the province of Aleppo (
Archaeology
Few traces of the once great Roman city are visible today aside from the massive fortification walls that snake up the mountains to the east of the modern city, several aqueducts, and the
Between 1932 and 1939, archaeological excavations of Antioch were undertaken under the direction of the "Committee for the Excavation of Antioch and Its Vicinity", which was made up of representatives from the
The excavation team failed to find the major buildings they hoped to unearth, including Constantine's Great Octagonal Church or the imperial palace. However, a great accomplishment of the expedition was the discovery of high-quality Roman mosaics from villas and baths in Antioch, Daphne and Seleucia Pieria.
The principal excavations of Mosaics at Antioch led by Princeton University in March 1932 recovered nearly 300 mosaics. Many of these mosaics were originally displayed as floor mosaics in private homes during the second through sixth centuries AD, while others were displayed in baths and other public buildings. The majority of the Antioch mosaics are from the fourth and fifth centuries, Antioch's golden age, though others from earlier times have survived as well .[73] The mosaics depict a variety of images including animals, plants, and mythological beings, as well as scenes from the daily lives of people living in the area at the time. Each mosaic is bordered by intricate designs and contains bold, vibrant colors.[74]
One mosaic includes a border that depicts a walk from Antioch to Daphne, showing many ancient buildings along the way. The mosaics are now displayed in the Hatay Archaeology Museum in Antakya. A collection of mosaics on both secular and sacred subjects which were once in churches, private homes, and other public spaces now hang in the Princeton University Art Museum[75] and museums of other sponsoring institutions. The non-Islamic coins from the excavations were published by Dorothy B. Waage.[76]
A statue in the Vatican and a number of figurines and statuettes perpetuate the type of its great patron goddess and civic symbol, the Tyche (Fortune) of Antioch – a majestic seated figure, crowned with the ramparts of Antioch's walls and holding wheat stalks in her right hand, with the river Orontes as a youth swimming under her feet. According to William Robertson Smith the Tyche of Antioch was originally a young virgin sacrificed at the time of the founding of the city to ensure its continued prosperity and good fortune.[77]
The northern edge of Antakya has been growing rapidly over recent years, and this construction has begun to expose large portions of the ancient city, which are frequently bulldozed and rarely protected by the local museum.
In April 2016, archaeologists discovered a Greek mosaic showing a skeleton lying down with a wine pitcher and loaf of bread alongside a text that reads: "Be cheerful, enjoy your life", it is reportedly from the third century BC. Described as the "reckless skeleton" or "skeleton mosaic", the mosaic is once thought to have belonged in the dining room of an upper-class home.[78][79]
Notable people
- Abba Judan, philanthropist
- Arcadius of Antioch, Greek grammarian
- Asclepiades of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch
- Saint Barnabas, one of the prominent Christian disciplesin Jerusalem
- Split
- ammiratus ammiratorum
- Ignatius of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch
- John Malalas, a Greek chronicler
- John Chrysostom, (349–407) Patriarch of Constantinople
- Emperor Julian
- Gospel of St. Luke and Acts of the Apostles
- Severus of Antioch, was the Patriarch of Antioch, and the head of the Syriac Orthodox Church
- Aulus Licinius Archias, Greek poet
- Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, Roman politician and general
- Saint Maron, Patriarch of the Maronite Church
See also
- Antiochene Rite
- Holy Hand Grenade of Antiochfrom Monty Python
- List of Greek place names
- The Martyr of Antioch
- Theophilus of Antioch
References and sources
Notes
References
- ISBN 978-0816057221.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-97334-2.
- ^ "Antioch modern and ancient city, south-central Turkey". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2022-10-17.
- ^ Kloeg, Paul. "Antioch the Great: Population and Economy of Second-Century Antioch." Masters, Leiden University, 2013. https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/21549.
- ^ "The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church." — "Antioch," Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in online .pdf file.
- ^ "Acts 11:26 and when he found him, he brought him back to Antioch. So for a full year they met together with the church and taught large numbers of people. The disciples were first called Christians at Antioch". biblehub.com.
- ^ a b c d e Rockwell 1911, p. 130.
- ISBN 978-0-85323-595-8.
- ^ a b Glanville Downey, Ancient Antioch (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1963). Available as a PDF File
- ^ "Syrian Antioch and Pisidian Antioch". Bible Wise. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
- ^ "s.v. Ἀντιόχεια". Suda. At the Suda On Line project of the Stoa Consortium.
- ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "Seleucia". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
- ^ John Malalas, Book 8, pp.199–202
- ^ JSTOR 283667. Retrieved 2022-06-14.
- ^ Rockwell 1911, pp. 130–131.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Rockwell 1911, p. 131.
- Pro Archia, 4
- ^ John Malalas, Book 8, pp.207–208
- ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
- ^ Strabo, 15.7.73 [1].
- Dio Cassius, liv, 9.
- ^ H. H. Ben-Sasson (1976), A history of the Jewish people, Harvard University Press, p. 319
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3811-7.
- ^ Acts 11:19
- ISBN 9780226653730. Retrieved 15 Dec 2022.
- ^ Acts 11
- ^ Acts 11:26
- ^ Acts 13:14–50
- ISBN 978-0-8014-8573-2.
- ISBN 0-8018-3354-X
- ^ "St John Chrysostom's homily on Saint Babylas". Archived from the original on 2008-07-06. Retrieved 2012-01-24.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.8 – 22.13.3
- ^ Socrates of Constantinople, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.18
- ^ Ridebatur enim ut Cercops...barbam prae se ferens hircinam. Ammianus XXII 14.
- ^ "Seleucia in Pieria, Ancient Warfare Magazine". Archived from the original on 2013-10-30. Retrieved 2020-03-26.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7546-5909-9.
- ISBN 978-0-7546-5909-9. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
- ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6
- ^ Albu 2015, p. 160-161.
- ^ Grousset 1970, p. 154.
- ^ Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades, Cambridge University Press, 1955, pp. 326, 354–359
- ^ Byzantine Religious Culture: Studies in Honor of Alice-Mary Talbot, Alice-Mary Maffry Talbot, Denis Sullivan, Elizabeth A. Fisher, Stratis Papaioannou, p.281
- ^ A short history of Antioch, 300 B.C.-A.D. 1268. Oxford, Blackwell. 1921. Retrieved 2013-03-25.
- ^ Antioch (International Internet Preservation Consortium)
- ^ The Crusades The War For The Holy Land by Thomas Asbridge page 114 (p.3) to page 115
- ^ Ibn al-Athir vol. 2, p. 320; Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic perspectives, pp. 175–85
- ^ A History of the Crusades – Volume II.: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East: 1100–1187.
- ^ The Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades: The Integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins (1080–1393).
- ^ Usmah Ibn Munqidh (1095–1188): Autobiography: Excerpts on the Franks, c. 1175 CE.
- ^ a b Annales Herbipolenses, s.a. 1147: A Hostile View of the Crusade
- ^ Weltecke 2006, pp. 113–114.
- ^ The Crusades: A Documentary Survey Brundage
- ^ Les Familles d'Outremer
- ^ od's War: A New History of the Crusade
- ^ Religious and Military Crusader Orders in Syria in the 12th and 13th Centuries. Amman 2003.
- ^ Seeing Islam as Others Saw Athanasius II
- ^ Earthquakes in Syria during the Crusades. Cairo 1996.
- ^ Axelrod, Alan and Charles L. Phillips, editors. "Encyclopedia of Historical Treaties and Alliances, Vol. 1". Zenda Inc., New York, 2001
- ^ Wolff p.113
- ^ Konstam, Historical Atlas of the Crusades, 162
- ^ Comyn, pg. 267
- ^ A short history of Antioch, 300 B.C.-A.D. 1268 (1921)
- ^ Riley-Smith, Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades
- ^ Jean Richard, The Crusades: c. 1071 – c. 1291, pp 423–426
- ^ "Ghazan resumed his plans against Egypt in 1297: the Franco-Mongol cooperation had thus survived, in spite of the loss of Acre by the Franks, and the conversion of the Persian Mongols to Islam. It was to remain one of the political factors of the policy of the Crusades, until the peace treaty with the Mumluks, which was only signed in 1322 by the khan Abu Said", Jean Richard, p.468
- ^ "Zahiriyya Madrasa and Mausoleum of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars". Archived from the original on January 8, 2009.
- ^ New scourge from Egypt, A History of Armenia by Vahan M. Kurkjian
- ^ Michaud, The History of the Crusades, Vol. 3, p. 18; available in full at Internet Archive. In a footnote Michaud claims reliance on "the chronicle of Ibn Ferat" (Michaud, Vol.3, p.22) for much of the information he has concerning the Mussulmans.
- ^ Runciman, op. cit., p. 326.
- ISBN 9780691173894.
- S2CID 214223544.pp. 152-174
- ^ "Sacred Destinations". Retrieved 2008-07-01.
- JSTOR 283184.
- ISBN 978-0-19-513918-1.
- JSTOR 3774611.
- ISBN 978-0-901405-58-6.
- ^ Smith, William Robertson (1889). Lectures on the Religion of the Semites. University of Cambridge: D. Appleton and Company. p. 356.
- ^ "Archaeologists discovered an ancient mosaic with a wonderful message". The Independent. April 24, 2016.
- ^ Sabah, Daily (April 22, 2016). "2,400 year-old mosaic found in southern Turkey says 'be cheerful, enjoy your life'". Daily Sabah.
Sources
- Albu, Emily (2015). "Antioch and the Normans". In Hurlock, Kathryn; Oldfield, Paul (eds.). Crusading and Pilgrimage in the Norman World. The Boydell Press.
- Grousset, René (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Translated by Walford, Naomi. Rutgers University Press.
- Müller, Karl Otfried (1839). Antiquitates Antiochenae
- Freund, Albin (1882). Beiträge zur antiochenischen und zur konstantinopolitanischen Stadtchronik
- R. Forster (1897). in Jahrbuch of Berlin Arch. Institute, xii.
- Weltecke, Dorothea (2006). "On the Syriac Orthodox in the Principality of Antioch during the Crusader Period". In Ciggaar, Krijna Nelly; Metcalf, David Michael (eds.). East and West in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean: Antioch from the Byzantine Reconquest Until the End of the Crusader Principality. Peeters Publishers. pp. 95–124. ISBN 978-90-429-1735-4. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
- Wickert, Ulrich (1999). "Antioch." In The Encyclopedia of Christianity, edited by Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, 81–82. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, ISBN 0802824137
- public domain: Rockwell, William Walker (1911). "Antioch". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 130–132. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
External links
- The Ancient City of Antioch Map
- Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Antioch on the Orontes (Antaky), Turkey"
- Antioch (Antakya) Includes timeline, maps, and photo galleries of Antioch's mosaics and artifacts
- Antakya Museum Many photos of the collection in Antakya's museum, in particular Roman mosaics
- Antiochepedia Blog News and information about ancient Antioch
- Hatay Archaeology Museum website (mosaics from Antioch)