Antisemitism in France
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Antisemitism in France is the expression through words or actions of an ideology of hatred of Jews on French soil.
Jews were present in Roman Gaul, but information is limited before the fourth century. As the Roman Empire became Christianized, restrictions on Jews began and many emigrated, some to Gaul. In the Middle Ages, France was a center of Jewish learning, but over time, persecution increased, including multiple expulsions and returns.
During the
During
France today has the third largest Jewish population in the world, behind those of Israel and the United States. However, since 2000, there has been a significant increase in assaults on Jewish people and property, giving rise to a debate about "
Early period
Roman Gaul
The beginning of Jewish presence in
However, it is not until the fourth century that there is reliable documentation of the presence of Jews in Gaul. Not all were from Palestine, some were converted by Jews in the diaspora. As the
Jews in Gaul had certain rights, deriving from the Constitutio Antoniniana, decreed in 212 by the Roman Emperor Caracalla to all inhabitants of the Empire, and included freedom of worship, the ability to hold public office, and serve in the army. Jews practiced every trade, and were no different than other Roman citizens, and dressed and spoke the same language as their fellow Romans. Even in the synagogue, where Hebrew was not the only language used. Relations were relatively good.[7]
Information is sketchy, but there is evidence, some dating to the first century, of geographically widespread habitation in Metz, Poitiers, or Avignon. By the fifth century, there is evidence of settlements in Brittany, Orleans, Narbonne, and elsewhere.[8]
Merovingian dynasty
After the
Clovis I converted to Catholicism in 496, along with the majority of the population which brought pressure on Jews to convert as well. The bishops in some localities offered Jews in their purview a choice between baptism and expulsion.[8] In the sixth century, Jews were documented in
The conversion to Christianity of the Visigoths and Franks made the condition of the Jews difficult: a succession of ecumenical councils diminished their rights until Dagobert I forced them to convert or leave France in 633.[10][page needed] During the councils of
Middle Ages
Persecutions under the Capets
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There were widespread persecutions of Jews in France beginning in 1007.
If
Another violent commotion arose at about 1065. At this date
Crusades
The Jews of France suffered during the
The Rhineland massacres, also known as the German Crusade of 1096,[28] were a series of mass murders of Jews perpetrated by mobs of German Christians of the People's Crusade in the year 1096, or 4856 according to the Jewish calendar. These massacres are seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events in Europe which culminated in the Holocaust.[29]
Prominent leaders of crusaders involved in the massacres included Peter the Hermit and especially Count Emicho.[30] As part of this persecution, the destruction of Jewish communities in Speyer, Worms and Mainz was noted as the "Hurban Shum" (Destruction of Shum).[31]
In the
Expulsions and returns
The practice of expelling the Jews accompanied by confiscation of their property, followed by temporary readmissions for ransom, was used during the Middle Ages to enrich the crown, including expulsions:[33]
- from Paris by Philip Augustus in 1182[citation needed]
- from Vienne by order of Pope Innocent III in 1253[citation needed]
- from Brittany in 1240[34]
- from Poitou in 1249[34]
- from France by Louis IX in 1254
- by Edward I of England from Gascony in 1288[34]
- from Anjou and Maine in 1289[34]
- from Nevers in 1294[34]
- from Niort in 1296[34]
- from Royal lands by Philip IV in 1306[34]
- by Charles IV in 1322
- by Charles V in 1359
- by Charles VI in 1394.
In 1182,
On 17 September 1394, Charles VI suddenly published an ordinance in which he declared that thenceforth no Jew should dwell in his domains ("Ordonnances", vii. 675). According to the Religieux de St. Denis, the king signed this decree at the insistence of the queen ("Chron. de Charles VI." ii. 119).[35] The decree was not immediately enforced, a respite being granted to the Jews in order that they might sell their property and pay their debts. Those indebted to them were enjoined to redeem their obligations within a set time; otherwise, their pledges held in pawns were to be sold by the Jews. The provost was to escort the Jews to the frontier of the kingdom. Subsequently, the king released the Christians from their debts.[36]
Black Death
The Black Death plague devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than half of the population, with Jews being made scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence, in particular in the Iberian peninsula and in the Germanic Empire. In Provence, forty Jews were burnt in Toulon as early as April 1348.[37] "Never mind that Jews were not immune from the ravages of the plague; they were tortured until they confessed to crimes that they could not possibly have committed.
"The large and significant Jewish communities in such cities as Nuremberg, Frankfurt, and Mainz were wiped out at this time."(1406)[38] In one such case, a man named Agimet was ... coerced to say that Rabbi Peyret of Chambéry (near Geneva) had ordered him to poison the wells in Venice, Toulouse, and elsewhere. In the aftermath of Agimet's "confession", the Jews of Strasbourg were burned alive on 14 February 1349.[39][40]
Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by the 6 July 1348 papal bull and another 1348 bull, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt in Strasbourg, where the plague hadn't yet affected the city.[37] Clement VI condemned the violence and said those who blamed the plague on the Jews (among whom were the flagellants) had been "seduced by that liar, the Devil."[41]
The first massacre directly related to the plague took place in April 1348 in Toulon, where the Jewish quarter was sacked, and forty Jews were murdered in their homes. Shortly afterward, violence broke out in Barcelona and other Catalan cities.[42] In 1349, massacres and persecutions spread across Europe, including the
Stereotypes and medieval Art
During the Middle Ages, much art was created by Christians that depicted Jews in a fictional or stereotypical manner; the great majority of narrative religious Medieval art depicted events from the Bible, where the majority of persons shown had been Jewish. But the extent to which this was emphasized in their depictions varied greatly. Some of this art was based on preconceived notions about how Jews dressed or looked, as well as the “sinning” acts that Christians believed that they committed.[47] One iconic symbol of this era was Ecclesia and Synagoga, a pair of statues personifying the Christian Church (Ecclesia) next to her predecessor, the Nation of Israel (synagoga). The latter was often displayed blindfolded and carrying a tablet of the law slipping from her hand, sometimes also bearing a broken staff, whereas Ecclesia was standing upright with a crowned head, a chalice, and a staff adorned with the cross.[48] This was often as a result of a misinterpretation of the Christian doctrine of supersessionism involving a replacement of the "old" covenant given to Moses by the "new" covenant of Christ, which medieval Christians took to mean that the Jews had fallen out of God's favor.[citation needed]
Medieval Christians believed in the idea of Jewish "stubbornness" because Jews did not accept that Christ was the Messiah. This idea extended further in that the Jews dismissed Christ so far that they decided to murder him by nailing him to a cross. Jews were, therefore, marked as the "enemies of Christians" and "Christ-killers."[47] This notion was one of the main inspirations behind antisemitic portrayals of Jews in Christian art.[citation needed]
According to medieval Christians, anyone who did not agree with their ideas of faith, including the Jewish people, was automatically assumed to be friendly with the devil and simultaneously condemned to hell. In many portrayals of Christian art, Jews are made out to resemble demons or interact with the devil. This is meant to not only portray Jews as ugly, evil, and grotesque but also to establish that demons and Jews are innately similar. Jews would also be placed in front of hell to further showcase that they are damned.[47]
By the twelfth century, the concept of a "stereotypical Jew" was widely known. A stereotypical Jew was usually male with a heavy beard, a hat, and a large, crooked nose which were significant identifiers for someone Jewish. These notions were portrayed in medieval art, which ultimately ensured that a Jew could easily be identified. The idea behind a stereotypical Jew was primarily to portray them as ugly creature who is to be avoided and feared.[47]
Ancien Regime
The
Jewish residents of France lived on the periphery of the country: in the southwest, southeast, and northeast under conditions inherited from the Middle Ages, with only around 400 in Paris. Their main concern was simply to maintain their right of residency, which involved significant financial payments to various rulers, which was complex due to the division of authority between king and local seigneurs. In return, Jews were allowed to live in specific places, and occupy certain limited occupations, especially moneylending, and secondhand sales. Jews were a tolerated alien group that formed their own self-governing community, parallel to the general social order, but not quite part of it, and governed by their own
Revolutionary France
Run-up to Revolution
Before the
Severe measures were taken against the Jews of Alsace (about 20,000 people) through the letters patent of 10 July 1784: limitation of the number of Jews and their marriages, economic restrictions, and other measures.[54] On the other hand, the edict of January 1784 by Louis XVI exempted the other Jews "from the duties of Leibzoll, traverse, custom[clarify] and all other duties of this nature for their person only" which previously equated them with animals.[55] In 1787, the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences of Metz launched a contest: "Are there ways to make the Jews happier and more useful in France?"[a]
French Revolution
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Jews gained equal rights to French citizenship when the
Napoleon and First Empire
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In the early 19th century, through his conquests in Europe, Napoleon Bonaparte spread the modernist ideas of revolutionary France:
In one 1822 communication, Napoleon expressed his support of emancipation based on his wish to "leave off
Third Republic
Media and organizations
Three antisemitic publications were formed in the 1882-1885 period, but did not last long: L'Anti-Juif, L'Anti-Sémitique, and Le Péril sociale.[60]
Inspired by the success of the book, Drumont and Jacques de Biez [fr] founded the Antisemitic League of France (Ligue antisémitique de France) in 1889. It was active in the Dreyfus Affair.[60] Jules Guérin was an active member. The League organized demonstrations and riots, a tactic later copied by other far-right organizations.[citation needed] Guerin edited the anti-Dreyfusard weekly newspaper L'Antijuif as the official organ of the Antisemitic League from 1898 to 1899.[62]
The International Review of Secret Societies [fr], directed at first by Ernest Jouin and later by Canon Schaefer, leader of the Free-Catholic League [fr], went from 200 subscribers in 1912 to 2000 in 1932.[63] The Catholic journalist Léon de Poncins, a follower of conspiracy theories and a contributor to many newspapers (including Le Figaro, directed by François Coty, or L'Ami du Peuple, subtitled "Weekly magazine of racialist action against occult forces"[b] participated in it,[64] as did the occultist Pierre Virion, who founded an association after the war with General Weygand,[65] the Vichy Minister of National Defense, before enforcing racist laws in North Africa.[64]
Le Grand Occident, run by the anti-Dreyfusards
Other reviews were more fleeting, such as La France Réelle, close to L'Action francaise; the pro-fascist L'Insurgé, or L'Ordre National, close to La Cagoule, an anti-communist and antisemitic terrorist group financed by Eugène Schueller, founder of L'Oréal. The latter published articles by Hubert Bourgin and Jacques Dumas [fr].[64]
Panama Canal Scandal
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The
Hannah Arendt argues that the affair had an immense importance in the development of French antisemitism, due to the involvement of two Jews of German origin, Baron Jacques de Reinach and Cornelius Herz.[67] Although they were not among the bribed Parliament members or on the company's board, according to Arendt they were in charge of distributing the bribe money, Reinach among the right wing of the bourgeois parties, Herz among the anti-clerical radicals. Reinach was a secret financial advisor to the government and handled its relations with the Panama Company.[67] Herz was Reinach's contact in the radical wing, but Herz's double-dealing blackmail ultimately drove Reinach to suicide.
However, before his death Reinach gave a list of the suborned members of Parliament to
Dreyfus Affair
The
The scandal began in December 1894 when Captain Alfred Dreyfus of Alsatian Jewish descent was convicted of treason. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly communicating French military secrets to the Germans, and was imprisoned in Devil's Island in French Guiana, where he spent nearly five years.
Antisemitism was a prominent factor throughout the affair. Existing prior to the Dreyfus affair, it had expressed itself during the boulangisme affair and the Panama Canal scandal but was limited to an intellectual elite. The Dreyfus Affair spread hatred of Jews through all strata of society, a movement that certainly began with the success of Jewish France by Édouard Drumont in 1886.[70] It was then greatly amplified by various legal episodes and press campaigns for nearly fifteen years. Antisemitism was thenceforth official and was evident in numerous settings including the working classes.[71] Candidates for the legislative elections took advantage of antisemitism as a watchword in parliamentary elections. This antisemitism was reinforced by the crisis of the separation of church and state in 1905, which probably led to its height in France. Antisemitic actions were permitted on the advent of the Vichy regime, which allowed free and unrestrained expression of racial hatred.[citation needed]
Antisemitic riots
Antisemitic riots predated the Dreyfus Affair, and were almost a tradition in the East, where "the Alsatian people observed upon the outbreak of any revolution in France".[72] But the antisemitic riots that broke out in 1898 during the Dreyfus Affair were much more widespread. There were three waves of violence during January and February in 55 localities: the first ending the week of 23 January; the second wave in the week following; and the third wave from 23–28 February;[73] these waves and other incidents totaled 69 riots or disturbances across the country.[74] Additionally, riots took place in French Algeria from 18–25 January. Demonstrators at these disturbances threw stones, chanted slogans, attacked Jewish property and sometimes Jewish people, and resisted police efforts to stop them. Mayors called for calm, and troops including cavalry were called in an attempt to quell the disturbances.[73]
However the fervid reaction to the Affair and especially the Zola trial was only partly spontaneous. In a dozen cities including Nantes, Lille, and Le Havre, antisemitic posters appeared in the streets, and riots followed soon after. At Saint-Etienne, posters read, "Imitate your brothers of Paris, Lyon, Marseille, Nantes, Toulouse... join with them in demonstrating against the underhand attacks being made on the Nation." In Caen, Marseille, and other cities, riots followed antisemitic speeches or meetings, such as the meeting organized by the Comité de Défense Religieuse et Sociale in Caen.[73]
Popular Front
Vichy regime
During World War II, the
Aryanization
Aryanization was the forced expulsion of Jews from business life in Nazi Germany, Axis-aligned states, and their occupied territories. It entailed the transfer of Jewish property into "Aryan" hands. The process started in 1933 in Nazi Germany with transfers of Jewish property and ended with the Holocaust.[75][76] Two phases have generally been identified: a first phase in which the theft from Jewish victims was concealed under a veneer of legality, and a second phase, in which property was more openly confiscated. In both cases, Aryanization corresponded to Nazi policy and was defined, supported, and enforced by Germany's legal and financial bureaucracy.[77][78] Between $230 and $320 billion (in 2005 [US] dollars) was stolen from Jews across Europe,[79] with hundreds of thousands of businesses Aryanized.
The term is also used by historians to refer to the spoliation of French Jews, carried out jointly and concurrently by the German occupier and the Vichy regime. It followed the law of 22 July 1941 of the "French State", which itself followed the relentless Aryanization by the Germans in the fall of 1940 in the occupied zone. Long neglected, the spoliation of Jewish property has become a highly developed field of research since the 1990s.
The dispossession of Jews was from the outset included in the mission statement of the Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs, created on 29 March 1941 and directed first by Xavier Vallat and then by Louis Darquier de Pellepoix. From the summer of 1940, various German departments were also actively engaged in stealing Jewish property. Ambassador Otto Abetz took advantage of the 1940 Mass exodus to southern France [fr; es; pt] to steal the art collections of absent Jewish owners. At the end of 1941, the Germans imposed an exorbitant fine of one billion francs on the French Jewish community, to be paid among other things upon the sale of Jewish property, and managed by the Caisse des dépôts et consignations.
Historian Henry Rousso estimated the number of Aryanized companies at 10,000.[80] There were 50,000 appointments administrators of Jewish property during the Occupation. By 1940, 50% of the Jewish community was deprived of their normal livelihood according to Vichy laws prohibiting them from many occupations as well as by German ordinances.[81]
Propaganda
Le Juif et la France (The Jews and France) was an antisemitic propaganda exhibition that took place in Paris from 5 September 1941 to 15 January 1942[82] during the German occupation of France. A film version of the exhibition came out in French cinemas in October 1941.[83]
It was organized and financed by the propaganda arm of the German military administration in France via the Institut d'étude des questions juives (IEQJ) (Institute for the Study of Jewish Questions) under regulation by the Gestapo and attracted around half a million visitors.[82][83] This exhibition was based on the work of Professor George Montandon at the School of Anthropology in Paris, author of the book Comment reconnaître le Juif? (How to recognize a Jew?) published in November 1940. It had pretensions of being "scientific". It was opened by Carltheo Zeitschel and Theodor Dannecker on 5 September 1941[84][page needed][85] at the Palais Berlitz.[86]
Anti-Jewish legislation
Anti-Jewish laws were enacted by the Vichy government in 1940 and 1941 affecting metropolitan France and its overseas territories during World War II. These laws were, in fact, decrees by the head of state Marshal Philippe Pétain, since Parliament was no longer in office as of 11 July 1940. The motivation for the legislation was spontaneous and was not mandated by Germany.[87][88]
In July 1940, Vichy set up a special commission charged with reviewing naturalizations granted since 1927 reform of the nationality law.[89] Between June 1940 and August 1944, 15,000 persons, mostly Jews, were denaturalized.[90] This bureaucratic decision was instrumental in their subsequent internment in the green ticket roundup.[citation needed]
Pétain personally made the 3 October 1940 law even more aggressively antisemitic than it initially was, as can be seen by annotations made on the draft in his own hand.[91] The law "embraced the definition of a Jew established in the Nuremberg Laws",[92] deprived the Jews of their civil rights, and fired them from many jobs. The law also forbade Jews from working in certain professions (teachers, journalists, lawyers, etc.) while the law of 4 October 1940 provided authority for the incarceration of foreign Jews in internment camps in southern France such as Gurs.
The statutes were aimed at depriving Jews of the right to hold
After the liberation of Paris when the Provisional government was in control under Charles de Gaulle, these laws were declared null and void on 9 August 1944.[96]
The Holocaust
Between 1940 and 1944 Jews in
Roundups
French police carried out numerous roundups of Jews during World War II, including the
Green ticket roundup
The green ticket roundup took place on 14 May 1941 during the Nazi occupation of France. The mass arrest started a day after French Police delivered a green card (French: billet vert) to 6694 foreign Jews living in Paris, instructing them to report for a "status check".[103]
Over half reported as instructed, most of them Polish and Czech. They were arrested and deported to one of two transit camps in France. Most of them were interned for a year before getting deported to
July 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup
In July 1942 the French police organized the
1941 Paris synagogue attacks
On the night of October 2–3, 1941, six synagogues in Paris were attacked and damaged by explosive devices placed by their doors.[105]
Helmut Knochen, Chief Commandant of the Sicherheitspolizei (Nazi Occupying Security Services)[106] ordered the attacks on the Paris synagogues.[citation needed] Members of the Milice placed the bombs.[citation needed] The Revolutionary Social Movement (MSR), a Far-right political party was also implicated in the attacks.[107]
According to the Vichy correspondent of the Swiss newspaper
The perpetrators were identified but not arrested.[citation needed]
Organized plunder
Nazi Germany plundered cultural property in Germany and from all the territories they occupied, targeting Jewish property in particular. Several organizations were created expressly for the purpose of looting books, paintings, and other cultural artefacts.[109]
Post-World War II
Algeria
Background
There is evidence of Jewish settlements in Algeria since at least the
The French government granted Jews, who by then numbered some 33,000,[114] French citizenship in 1870 under the Crémieux Decree[115] The decision to extend citizenship to Algerian Jews was a result of pressures from prominent members of the liberal, intellectual French Jewish community, which considered the North African Jews to be "backward" and wanted to bring them into modernity.[citation needed]
Within a generation, despite initial resistance, most Algerian Jews came to speak French rather than Arabic or
French antisemitism set down strong roots among the expatriate French community in Algeria, where every municipal council was controlled by antisemites, and newspapers were rife with xenophobic attacks on the local Jewish communities.
A Vichy law of 7 October 1940 (pub. 8 October in the JO) abrogated the
Struggle for independence
The Jewish community in Algeria had always been in a fragile position. After World War II, the Algerian Jewish community formed a number of organizations to support and safeguard religious institutions. The fate of the community was determined by the
Most Algerian Jews in 1961 still hoped for a solution of partition or dual nationality that would permit a resolution of the conflict, and groups such as the Comité Juif Algérien d'Etudes Sociales attempted to straddle the question of identity. Fears increased with the increasing terrorist activity by the OAS (Organisation armée secrète) and FLN, and emigration rose rapidly in mid-1962 with 70,000 leaving for France and 5,000 opting for Israel. The French government treated Jews and non-Jewish immigrants equally, and 32,000 Jews settled in the Paris area, with many others heading to Strasbourg which already had an established community. Estimates are that 80% of Algeria's Jewish community settled in France.[121]
For those Jews still present after Algerian independence in 1962, the situation remained tolerable for a few years, with the minister of culture addressing the congregation on Yom Kippur. But the situation worsened rapidly with the accession to power of
Assaults and desecrations
1980 Paris synagogue bombing
On 3 October 1980, the
1982 Paris restaurant bombing
On 9 August 1982 the
Although the Abu Nidal Organization had long been suspected,[131][132] suspects from the group were only definitively identified 32 years after the attacks, in evidence given by two former Abu Nidal members granted anonymity by French judges.[133]
In December 2020 one of the suspects, Walid Abdulrahman Abou Zayed, was handed over to French police (at a Norwegian airport) and flown to France.
Carpentras cemetery 1990
On 10 May 1990, a Jewish cemetery at Carpentras was desecrated. This led to a public uproar, and a protest demonstration in Paris attended by 200,000 persons, including French President François Mitterrand. After several years of investigation, five people, among them three former members of the extremist far-right French and European Nationalist Party confessed on 2 August 1996.[139][140] On 5 June 1990, the PNFE magazine Tribune nationaliste was banned by the French authorities.[141]
Since 2000
France has the largest population of Jews in the diaspora after the United States—an estimated 500,000–600,000 people. Paris has the highest population, followed by Marseille, which has 70,000 Jews, most of North African origin. Expressions of antisemitism were seen to rise during the
Speech and writing
Dieudonné
Public personalities have caused controversy by their positions which they call "anti-Zionist". This is the case of comedian
Despite gaining notoriety in his duo with Jewish comedian, Elie Semoun, in 1997 Dieudonné began incorporating antisemitism in his comedy and in his public persona. He was a proponent of the myth of Jewish conspiracy and power, often tying his anti-zionism with claims about "the Jewish lobby" and "the Jewish media." He touted Jewish responsibility for slavery and Jewish racism against Blacks and Arabs as reason for his beliefs about Jewish control, and allied with Holocaust deniers. Dieudonné leveled antisemitic attacks against many prominent French Jews such as Dominique Strauss-Kahn and Bernard-Henri Lévy among others. His antisemitism fuels his political and social campaigns, which resulted in a wave of antisemitic attacks against French Jews, including the killing of Ilan Halimi.[154] Dieudonné has been fined ten of thousands of euros for defamation regarding antisemitic statements.[155]Cercle Édouard Drumont
The "Cercle Édouard Drumont" (named after the author of the antisemitic essay
Attacks
Passover 2002 attacks
A series of attacks on Jewish targets in France took place in a single week in 2002, coinciding with the Jewish holiday of Passover, including at least five synagogues.[158][159] The targeted synagogues include the Lyon synagogue, the Or Aviv synagogue in Marseille, which burned to the ground; a synagogue in Strasbourg, where a fire was set that burned the doors and facade of the building before being doused;[160] and the firebombing of a synagogue in the Paris suburb of Le Kremlin-Bicêtre.[159]
Lyon synagogue
On 30 March 2002, a group of masked men
The attack took place at 1:00 am on a Saturday morning; the building was empty at the time. The attackers wore masks or hoods covering their faces, and eyewitnesses reported seeing twelve or fifteen attackers.[161][162][158][163]
2006 murder of Ilan Halimi
Ilan Halimi was a young Frenchman of Moroccan Jewish ancestry living in Paris with his mother and his two sisters.[164] On 21 January 2006, Halimi was kidnapped by a group calling itself the Gang of Barbarians. The kidnappers, believing that all Jews are rich, repeatedly contacted the victim's family of modest means demanding very large sums of money.[165]
After three weeks and no success in finding the captors, the family and the police stopped receiving messages from the captors. Halimi, severely tortured, burned over more than 80% of his body, was dumped unclothed and barely alive by the side of a road in Sainte-Geneviève-Des-Bois on 13 February 2006. He was found by a passerby who immediately called for an ambulance, but Halimi died from his injuries on the way to the hospital.[citation needed]
The French police were heavily criticized because they initially believed that antisemitism was not a factor in the crime.[166] The case drew national and international attention as an example of antisemitism in France.[165]
2012 Jewish day school shooting
The
At about 8:00 am on 19 March 2012, a man rode up to the Ozar Hatorah school on a motorcycle. Dismounting, he immediately opened fire toward the schoolyard. The first victim was 30-year-old Jonathan Sandler, a rabbi and teacher at the school who was shot outside the school gates as he tried to shield his two young sons from the gunman. The gunman shot both the boys—5-year-old Arié and 3-year-old Gabriel[167]—before walking into the schoolyard, chasing people into the building.
Inside, he shot at staff, parents, and students. He chased 8-year-old Myriam Monsonego, The gunman retrieved his scooter and rode away.
The government was already providing continuous protection to many Jewish institutions, but it increased security and raised the terrorist warnings to the highest level. Traffic on streets in France with Jewish institutions was closed for additional security.[128] The election campaign was suspended and President Nicolas Sarkozy, as well as other candidates in the presidential elections, immediately traveled to Toulouse and the school.[174]
Supermarket siege
On 9 January 2015,
2017 Killing of Sarah Halimi
Sarah Halimi (no relation to Ilhan Halimi) was a retired doctor and schoolteacher who was attacked and killed in her apartment on 4 April 2017. The circumstances surrounding the killing—including the fact that Halimi was the only Jewish resident in her building, and that the assailant shouted
For several months the government and some of the media hesitated to label the killing as antisemitic, drawing criticism from public figures such as Bernard-Henri Lévy. The government eventually acknowledged an antisemitic motivation for the killing. The assailant was declared to be not criminally responsible when the judges ruled he was undergoing a psychotic episode due to cannabis consumption, as established by independent psychiatric analysis.[181] The decision was appealed to the supreme Court of Cassation,[182] who in 2021 upheld the lower court's ruling.[183]
The killing has been compared to the murder of Mireille Knoll in the same arrondissement less than a year later, and to the murder of Ilan Halimi (no relation) eleven years earlier.[184]
Murder of Mireille Knoll
Mireille Knoll was an 85-year-old
Of the two alleged assailants, one was a 29-year-old neighbor of Knoll, who suffered from Parkinson's disease,[185] and had known her since he was a child, and the other, an unemployed 21-year-old. The two suspects entered the apartment and reportedly stabbed Knoll eleven times before setting her on fire.[186][187][188]
The Paris prosecutor's office characterized the 23 March murder as a hate crime, a murder committed because of the “membership, real or supposed, of the victim of a particular religion.” The New York Times noted, "The speed with which the authorities recognized the hate-crime nature of Ms. Knoll's murder is being seen as a reaction to the anger of France's Jews at the official response to that earlier crime, which prosecutors took months to characterize as antisemitic."[189][190][191]
During the 2023 Israel–Hamas war
In response to a rise in antisemitic incidents in France during the
On 31 October 2023, Stars of David were painted in multiple spots across several building fronts in a southern district of Paris. Similar tags appeared over the weekend in suburbs of the city, including Vanves, Fontenay-aux-Roses and Aubervilliers.[193]
On 1 November, Paris police chief Laurent Nunez opened a probe into antisemitic chants filmed on the Paris metro. In the video, youth are heard chanting, "Fuck the Jews and fuck your mother, long live Palestine. We are Nazis and proud of it."[194]Impact and analyses
New antisemitism
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Since 2000, France has experienced "an explosion of antisemitism, unprecedented since the Second World War", according to Timothy Peace. Statistics for assaults, attacks on property, and desecration (such as in cemeteries) have increased. Antisemitism in the form of public expression (chants, slogans and placards with "Death to the Jews" and so on) and tensions in public places such as schools have mounted. As a result, the Jewish community is becoming increasingly concerned and fearful; some parents have removed their children from schools, and a record number have been leaving France and emigrating to Israel or other countries. The rise in incidents since 2000 has resulted in numerous books, press, and other media coverage, and gave rise to a debate about a "new antisemitism",[195] whether it exists in France, and if so, who is responsible for committing such acts, and why.[196]
Emigration
Since 2010 or so, more
Threats and violence from radicalized Islamists have caused heightened security concerns for Jews in France, as well as schools, religious institutions, and other gathering places. The situation is causing many Jews to reevaluate their future in France.[197]
Increasing attacks in France such as the pro-Palestinian demonstrations in 2014 morphed into attacks on the Jewish community as well as individual attacks have affected the sense of personal security among Jews in France. One-third of all French Jews who have emigrated to Israel since its founding in 1948 have done so in the ten years following 2009.[198]
This is of great concern to the French government, which has been both tracking incidents and speaking out against what appears to be a rising tide of antisemitism in the country.[199] Statistics compiled from various sources showed a leap of 74% in antisemitic acts in France in 2018, and a further 27% rise the year following.[200]
See also
- France–Israel relations
- Antisemitic publications in France [fr]
- Antisemitism in 21st-century France
- Antisemitism in Spain
- Antisemitism in Christianity
- Catholic Church and Judaism
- Catholic Church and Nazi Germany during World War II
- French Fourth Republic
- French nationalism
- French Third Republic
- German occupation of France
- History of far-right movements in France
- History of the Jews in France
- Jewish disabilities (medieval law)
- Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting
- Law of 3 October 1940 on the Status of Jews
- Mais qui?
- Maurice Papon
- Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust
- Pursuit of Nazi collaborators
- Religious antisemitism
- Rene Bousquet
- Strasbourg Cathedral bombing plot
- The Holocaust in France
- Toulouse and Montauban shootings
- Vichy anti-Jewish legislation
- Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline
- Zone libre
References
- Notes
- ^ See various essays in Birnbaum (2017)
- ^ Weekly magazine of racialist action against occult forces: in French, Hebdomadaire d'action racique[sic] contre les forces occultes. Not to be confused with the 1789 newspaper of the same name.
- Footnotes
- ^ a b "France". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
- ^ Blumenkranz, Bernhard (1972). Histoire des Juifs en France. Toulouse: Privat. p. 376.
- ^ a b "Le régime de Vichy: Le Bilan de la Shoah en France" [The Vichy regime: The balance sheet of the Shoah in France]. bseditions.fr. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
- ^ a b Croes, Marnix. "The Holocaust in the Netherlands and the Rate of Jewish Survival" (PDF). Yad Vashem. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017.
- ^ a b Hall, John (25 January 2016). "Jews are leaving France in record numbers amid rising antisemitism and fears of more Isis-inspired terror attacks". The Independent. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022.
- ^ Benbassa 2001, p. 3.
- ^ a b Benbassa 2001, p. 4.
- ^ OCLC 865113295.
- ^ OCLC 61956716.
- ^ Benbassa 2001.
- JSTOR 1453586.
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- ^ Published in Berliner's Magazin iii. 46-48, Hebrew part, reproducing Parma De Rossi MS. No. 563, 23; see also Jew. Encyc. v. 447, s.v. France.
- ^ a b "Jacob Ben Jekuthiel". JewishEncyclopedia.com.
- ISBN 978-0312244491.
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- ^ Berliner's "Magazin," iii.; "Oẓar Ṭob," pp. 46-48.
- ^ "Rouen". encyclopedia.com.
- ^ Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores, iv. 137.
- ^ Chronicles of Adhémar of Chabannes ed. Bouquet, x. 152; Chronicles of William Godellus ib. 262, according to whom the event occurred in 1007 or 1008.
- ^ OCLC 50242976.
- ^ Chronicles of Adhémar of Chabannes ed. Bouquet, x. 34
- ^ Riant, Paul Edouard Didier (1880). Inventaire Critique des Lettres Historiques des Croisades — 786–1100. Paris. p. 38.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Simonsohn, pp 35–37.
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- ^ Shum Hebrew: שו"ם were the letters of the three towns as pronounced at the time in old French: Shaperra, Wermieza, and Magenzza.
- ^ Michael Costen, The Cathars and the Albigensian Crusade, p 38
- ISBN 978-1-85109-873-6. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f g Lindemann & Levy 2010, p. 75.
- ^ History of the reign of Charles VI, titled Chronique de Religieux de Saint-Denys, contenant le regne de Charles VI de 1380 a 1422, encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852.
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- ^ a b c Stéphane & Gualde 2006, p. 47.
- ^ Johannes, Fried (2015) p. 421. The Middle Ages. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
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- ^ Johannes, Fried (2015) p. 420. The Middle Ages. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
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- ^ Foa 2000, p. 13.
- ^ Kantor 2005, p. 203 1349 The Black Death massacres swept across Europe. ... The Jews were savagely attacked and massacred, by sometimes hysterical mobs—normal social order had ...
- ^ Marshall 2006, p. 376 The period of the Black Death saw the massacre of Jews across Germany, and in Aragon, and Flanders
- ^ a b Gottfried 2010, p. 74.
- ^ Durant 1953, p. 730–731.
- ^ a b c d Strickland, Debra Higgs (2003). Saracens, Demons, and Jews: making monsters in Medieval art. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
- ^ Kamins, Toni (20 March 2015). "From Notre Dame to Prague, Europe's anti-Semitism is literally carved in stone". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. New York. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019.
- ^ Aston 2000, pp. 72–89.
- ^ Hyman & Sorkin 1998, p. 1-3.
- ^ Voltaire 1829, p. 493.
- ^ a b Birnbaum 2017, Introduction.
- ^ Morin 1989, p. 71-122.
- ^ Feuerwerker 1965.
- ^ Sagnac 1899, p. 209.
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- ^ Barry Edward O'Meara (1822). "Napoleon in Exile". Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- ^ "New letters of Napoleon I". 1898. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
- ^ a b c Benbassa 2001, p. 209.
- ^ a b Poliakov 1981.
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- ^ Schor 2005, p. 33–34.
- ^ a b c d e Schor 2005, p. 33-34.
- ^ Coston 1979, p. 730.
- ^ "panama". www.ak190x.de.
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- ^ Guy Canivet, first President of the Supreme Court, Justice from the Dreyfus Affair, p. 15.
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- OCLC 460467731. as quoted in Wilson (2007)p. 540
- ^ OCLC 1253400456.
- ^ Tombs 2014, p. 475.
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- ^ Shoah Resource Center. "Aryanization" (PDF). Yad Vashem. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
- ^ "Confiscation of Jewish Property in Europe, 1933–1945 New Sources and Perspectives Symposium Proceedings" (PDF). United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Center For Advanced Holocaust Studies. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
Particularly impressive and equally disturbing is the robbers' effort to ensure that property confiscation was carried out by 'legal' means through a vast array of institutions and organizations set up for this purpose. The immensely bureaucratic nature of the confiscation process emerges from the vast archival trail that has survived. Arguments that no one knew about the Jews' fate become untenable once it is clear how many people were involved in processing their property. 'Legal' measures often masked theft, but blatant robbery and extortion through intimidation and physical assault were also commonplace.
- ^ Döblin, Alfred (28 November 2010). "Plünderung jüdischen Eigentums Billigende Inkaufnahme "Wie Deutsche ihre jüdischen Mitbürger verwerteten": Die Enteignung der Juden ist gut dokumentiert. Wolfgang Dreßen hat die Akten gesichtet" [Looting of Jewish Property Tacit Acceptance of "How Germans Exploited Their Jewish Fellow Citizens": The Expropriation of the Jews is well documented. Wolfgang Dressen has sifted through the files.]. Die Tageszeitung: Taz (in German). Retrieved 10 July 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-8147-2938-0.
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- ^ Figures given by Olivier Wieviorka ("La vie politique sous Vichy", in La République recommencée [The Republic Redux], dir. S. Berstein)
- ^ OCLC 953054560. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
The IEQJ organised the exhibition Le Juif et la France (5 September 1941 to 11 January 1942). The official attendance figure was given as 1 million but it was probably no more than 500,000-700,000 and public opinion reacted against this form of Nazi propaganda.
- ^ OCLC 474199495. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
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- ^ Fresco 2021, p. 20-21.
- ^ Rayski 2005, p. 12.
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- ^ François Masure, "État et identité nationale. Un rapport ambigu à propos des naturalisés" [The State, and national Identity. An ambiguous relationship about naturalized citizens], in Journal des anthropologues, hors-série 2007, pp. 39–49 (see p. 48) (in French)
- ^ "Pétain a durci le texte sur Les Juifs, Selon un document inédit". Le Point. 3 October 2010. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013.
- ^ Yahil 1990, p. 173.
- ^ Epstein 1942, p. xxxv.
- ^ Klarsfeld 1983, p. xiii.
- ^ Joly 2008, p. 25-40.
- ^ "Ordonnance du 9 août 1944 relative au rétablissement de la légalité républicaine sur le territoire continental – Version consolidée au 10 août 1944" [Law of 9 August 1944 Concerning the reestablishment of the legally constituted Republic on the mainland – consolidated version of 10 August 1944]. gouv.fr. Legifrance. 9 August 1944. Archived from the original on 16 July 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
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- ^ Diamant 1977, p. 22, as quoted in Zuccotti 1999, pp. 146–147
- ^ a b Diamant 1977, as quoted in Rosenberg 2018, p. 297
- ^ "Pourquoi le rafle n'a pas ateint son objectif" (PDF). AIDH.org. p. 52. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2008. Retrieved 31 December 2009.
- ^ "The Vel' d'Hiv Roundup". The Holocaust in France. Yad Vashem. Archived from the original on 27 April 2014. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
- ^ Maurice Rajsfus, La Police de Vichy. Les Forces de l'ordre françaises au service de la Gestapo, 1940/1944, Le Cherche-midi éditeur , 1995. Chapter XIV, La Bataille de Marseille, pp. 209–217. (in French)
- ^ Laub 2010, p. 217.
- ISBN 978-2-84405-173-8.
- ISBN 978-1-137-51595-7.
On 2–3 October Deloncle and his men bombed seven synagogues with explosives supplied by the Germans – using terrorism once again to send another message to France, this one tied to their vehement antisemitism.
- ^ "La Police de sécurité allemande et ses auxiliaires en Europe de l'ouest occupée (1940-1945)" [The German Security Police and its auxiliaries in occupied Western Europe]. Ciera. 7 November 2012.
- ^ "Paris Promeneurs – La synagogue de la rue Pavée". www.paris-promeneurs.com. 12 August 2015. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
- ^ "Le terrorisme en France occupée. Attentats contre les synagogues de Paris. Des explosifs ont détruit ainsi sept des lieux de culte Israélite les plus connus de la capitale" (PDF). Feuille d'Avis de Neuchâtel et du Vignoble neuchâtelois. 4 October 1941. p. 1. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
- ^ "Nazi Looting and Plunder". The Holocaust. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
- ^ Karen B. Stern, Inscribing devotion and death: archaeological evidence for Jewish populations of North Africa, Bril, 2008, p.88
- ^ "Algeria". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
- ^ "The Edict of Expulsion of the Jews - 1492 Spain". Sephardicstudies.org. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
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- ^ Hyman & Sorkin 1998, p. 83.
- ^ Weil, Patrick (2008). How to Be French: Nationality in the Making since 1789. Duke University Press. pp. 128, 253.
- ^ Friedman, Elizabeth. Colonialism & After. South Hadley, Massachusetts: Bergen, 1988
- ^ Schreier, Joshua (13 January 2011). "Arabs of the Jewish Faith: The Civilizing Mission in Colonial Algeria". University of California Santa Cruz. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
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- ^ Hyman & Sorkin 1998, p. 105.
- ^ Benbassa 2001, p. 168.
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À l'entrée du Parc des expositions, une jeune femme distribue des tracts aux participants, annonçant la candidature de Dieudonné, Alain Soral et Yahia Gouasmi, président de la Fédération chiite de France, aux élections européennes du 7 juin sous les couleurs d'un Parti anti sioniste (PAS) [At the entrance of the Parc des expositions, a young woman distributes leaflets to the participants, announcing the candidacy of Dieudonné, Alain Soral and Yahia Gouasmi, president of the Shiite Federation of France, for the European elections of June 7 under the colors of an anti-Zionist Party (PAS).]
- ^ "La géopolitique pour les nuls II - Session de rattrapage" [Geopolitics for Dummies II - Catch-up session]. REFLEXes. 25 January 2009. Footnote 4.
- ^ Wistrich, Robert S. “Liberté, Egalité, Antisémitisme.” A Lethal Obsession: Anti-Semitism from Antiquity to the Global Jihad, Random House, New York, 2010, pp. 329–339.
- ^ "Dieudonné doit 65 000 euros pour différentes condamnations" [archive], France TV Info, 3 janvier 2014
- ^ d’Angelo, Robin (18 March 2019). "Une scission et l'Action française ne sait plus comment elle s'appelle" [A schism, and Action Française doesn't know what to call itself anymore]. Liberation.
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- ^ a b Diamond, Andrew (1 April 2002). "Weekend of anti-Semitism in France". JTA.
- ^ a b Tagliabue, John (5 April 2002). "Synagogue In Paris Firebombed; Raids Go On". New York Times.
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Works cited
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Legal position of Jews in Vichy France.—Almost immediately after the armistice, the Vichy government proclaimed its intention to deprive of their civil rights French people who are of Jewish faith or origin, and to place the Jews in the position of legal inferiority in which they find themselves in all other German-dominated countries. On October 3, 1940 (Journel Officiel of October 18), a law was published fixing the conditions under which a person is considered as being of Jewish origin. Access to all public offices, professions, journalism, executive positions in the film industry, etc. was prohibited to all such persons.
- Feuerwerker, David (1965). "Les juifs en France : anatomie de 307 cahiers de doléances de 1789" [The Jews in France: Anatomy of 307 Grievances Registers of 1789]. Annales. 20 (1): 45–61. .
- Fresco, Nadine (4 March 2021) [1st pub. La mort des juifs. Paris : Seuil, 2008]. On the Death of Jews: Photographs and History. Translated by Clift, Sarah. New York: Berghahn Books. OCLC 1226797554.
On the preceding page, the law from the day before (3 October 1940), signed by Marshall Philip Pétain and nine of his ministers, is the 'law on the status of the Jews.' We know that those in charge of Vichy, 'complicit even before having understood the inevitable extent of their own compromise', did not wait for it to be imposed by the occupying power before enacting it.73 We also know that whereas the German ordinance of the preceding month defined Jews by 'religion', the French statute of 3 October defined them by race.74
- Gottfried, Robert S. (11 May 2010). Black Death. Simon and Schuster. OCLC 1000454039.
- Hyman, Paula E.; Sorkin, David (22 December 1998). The Jews of Modern France. Jewish Communities in the Modern World, 1. Berkeley: University of California Press. OCLC 1149453952.
- Joly, Laurent (2008). "L'administration française et le statut du 2 juin 1941" [French administration and the law of 2 June 1941]. Archives Juives. Revue d'histoire des juifs de France. 41 (1). Paris: OCLC 793455446. Archived from the originalon 21 March 2015.
This ... was reflected in the drafting of the law of 2 June. In close collaboration and in perfect symbiosis with Admiral Darlan's services and the ministries concerned, the General Commission for Jewish Questions tightened the definition of a Jew (in order to escape the increased strictures of the law, "demi-Jews" had to have belonged to some religion other than Judaism before 25 June 1940) and extended the scope of prohibited occupations. Ce ... se ressent dans la rédaction de la loi du 2 juin. En étroite collaboration et en parfaite symbiose avec les services de l'amiral Darlan et les ministères concernés, le commissariat général aux Questions juives aggrave la définition du Juif (les « demi-juifs » doivent obligatoirement avoir adhéré à une religion autre que la religion juive avant le 25 juin 1940 pour échapper aux rigueurs de la loi) et étend le champ des interdictions professionnelles.
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3) A law of October 3, 1940, on the status of Jews excluded them from most public and private professions and defined Jews on the basis of racial criteria.
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"on 3 October, Vichy promulgated the 'Law Concerning the Status of Jews,' signed by Pétain and the principal members of his government.
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Vous etes des animaux calculants; tachez d'etre des animaux pensants.
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Further reading
- Adams, Jonathan; Heß, Cordelia (31 January 2018). The Medieval Roots of Antisemitism: Continuities and Discontinuities from the Middle Ages to the Present Day. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-12080-7.
- Bell, Dorian (15 April 2018). Globalizing Race: Antisemitism and Empire in French and European Culture. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-3690-8.
- Bensoussan, Georges (2018). Le nouvel antisémitisme en France [The new antisemitism in France] (in French). Albin Michel. ISBN 978-2-226-43615-3.
- Birnbaum, Pierre (1992). Anti-semitism in France: A Political History from Léon Blum to the Present. B. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-55786-047-7.
- Brustein, William I. (13 October 2003). Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77478-9.
- Chazan, Robert (18 August 1997). Medieval Stereotypes and Modern Antisemitism. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91740-8.
- Curtis, Michael (27 January 2015). Verdict on Vichy: Power and Prejudice in the Vichy France Regime. Arcade. ISBN 978-1-62872-481-3.
- Draï, Raphaël (2001). Sous le signe de Sion: l'antisémitisme nouveau est arrivé [Under the sign of Zion] (in French). Michalon. ISBN 978-2-84186-161-3.
- Giniewski, Paul (2005). Antisionisme, le nouvel antisémitisme [Antizionism, the new antisemitism] (in French). Editions Cheminements. ISBN 978-2-84478-353-0.
- Jackson, Julian (5 March 2003). France: The Dark Years, 1940-1944. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-162288-5.
- Jordan, William Chester (11 November 2016). The French Monarchy and the Jews: From Philip Augustus to the Last Capetians. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-1-5128-0532-1.
- Kalman, Julie (14 December 2009). Rethinking Antisemitism in Nineteenth-Century France. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89732-7.
- Lazare, Bernard (1903). Antisemitism, Its History and Causes. International library publishing Company.
- Lee, Daniel (June 2014). Pétain's Jewish Children: French Jewish Youth and the Vichy Regime. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-870715-8.
- MacShane, Denis (25 September 2008). Globalising Hatred: The New Antisemitism. Orion Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-297-85747-1.
- Mandel, Maud S. (2 August 2016). Muslims and Jews in France: History of a Conflict. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17350-4.
- Marcus, Jacob R.; Saperstein, Marc (31 December 2016). The Jews in Christian Europe: A Source Book, 315-1791. Hebrew Union College Press. ISBN 978-0-8229-8123-7.
- Mehlman, Jeffrey (1983). Legacies of Anti-semitism in France. U of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-1178-2.
- Michael, Robert; Rosen, Philip (2007). Dictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5868-8.
- Michael, R. (31 March 2008). A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-61117-7.
- Miedzian, Myriam (15 December 2006). "Anti-French Stereotypes Still Served Up". Huffpost. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
- Roberts, Sophie B. (28 December 2017). Citizenship and Antisemitism in French Colonial Algeria, 1870-1962. New York: Cambridge University Press. OCLC 987711623.
- Rose, Paul Lawrence (14 July 2014). German Question/Jewish Question: Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6111-8.
- Rosenfeld, Alvin H. (9 December 2015). Deciphering the New Antisemitism. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-01869-4.
- Samuels, Maurice (2 November 2016). The Right to Difference: French Universalism and the Jews. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-39932-4.
- Shields, James (7 May 2007). The Extreme Right in France: From Pétain to Le Pen. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-86111-8.
- Sternhell, Zeev (1988). Antisemitism and the Right in France. Shazar Library, Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
- Taguieff, Pierre-André; Camiller, Patrick (2004). Rising from the Muck: The New Anti-semitism in Europe. Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 978-1-56663-571-4.
- Trachtenberg, Joshua (1983). The Devil and the Jews: The Medieval Conception of the Jew and Its Relation to Modern Antisemitism. Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 978-0-8276-0227-4.
- Weitzmann, Marc (2019). Hate: The New Brew of an Ancient Poison. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-544-64964-4.
- Winock, Michel (1998). Nationalism, Anti-semitism, and Fascism in France. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3287-1.
- Winock, Michel (2004). La France et les juifs: de 1789 à nos jours [France and the Jews: From 1789 to the Present] (in French). Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-060954-8.
External links
- 2019 Statistics on antireligious, antisemitic, racist, and xenophobic acts, from the Ministry of the Interior(in French)
- A new anti-Semitism? Why thousands of Jewish citizens are leaving France, PBS NewsHour, 14 Sept 2014
- The State of Antisemitism in France AJC Advocacy Anywhere, American Jewish Committee, 3 February 2022