Antoninus Pius

Antoninus Pius
Bust in the Glyptothek, Munich
Roman emperor
Reign	11 July 138 – 7 March 161
Predecessor	Hadrian
Successor	Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus
Born	19 September 86 Lanuvium, Italy
Died	7 March 161 (aged 74) Lorium, Italy
Burial	Hadrian's Mausoleum
Spouse	Annia Galeria Faustina
Issue Detail	Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus Aurelia Fadilla Faustina the Younger Marcus Aurelius (adoptive) Lucius Verus (adoptive)
Names Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Antoninus[1] Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus (adoption)[2] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius[2]
Dynasty	Nerva–Antonine
Father	Titus Aurelius Fulvus (natural) Hadrian (adoptive)
Mother	Arria Fadilla Vibia Sabina (adoptive)

Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius (19 September AD 86 – 7 March 161) was

Born into a senatorial family, Antoninus held various offices during the reign of Emperor Hadrian. He married Hadrian's niece Faustina, and Hadrian adopted him as his son and successor shortly before his death. Antoninus acquired the cognomen Pius after his accession to the throne, either because he compelled the Senate to deify his adoptive father,^[4] or because he had saved senators sentenced to death by Hadrian in his later years.^[5] His reign is notable for the peaceful state of the Empire, with no major revolts or military incursions during this time. A successful military campaign in southern Scotland early in his reign resulted in the construction of the Antonine Wall.

Antoninus was an effective administrator, leaving his successors a large surplus in the treasury, expanding free access to drinking water throughout the Empire, encouraging legal conformity, and facilitating the enfranchisement of freed slaves. He died of illness in AD 161 and was succeeded by his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as co-emperors.

Early life

Childhood and family

Antoninus Pius was born Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Antoninus near

Antoninus' father had no other children and died shortly after his 89 ordinary consulship. Antoninus was raised by his maternal grandfather Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus,^[3] reputed by contemporaries to be a man of integrity and culture and a friend of Pliny the Younger.^[10] The Arrii Antonini were an older senatorial family from Italy, very influential during Nerva's reign. Arria Fadilla, Antoninus' mother, married afterwards Publius Julius Lupus, suffect consul in 98; from that marriage came two daughters, Arria Lupula and Julia Fadilla.^[11]

Marriage and children

Some time between 110 and 115, Antoninus married Annia Galeria

Faustina bore Antoninus four children, two sons and two daughters.[16] They were:

• Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.^[17][18]
• Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.^[17][19] His name appears on a Greek Imperial coin.
• Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135); she married Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus, consul 145. She appeared to have no children with her husband; and her sepulchral inscription has been found in Italy.^[20]
• Annia Galeria Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger (between 125 and 130–175), a future Roman Empress, married her maternal cousin Marcus Aurelius in 146.^[7]

When Faustina died in 141, Antoninus was greatly distressed.

The emperor never remarried. Instead, he lived with Galeria Lysistrate,^[24] one of Faustina's freed women. Concubinage was a form of female companionship sometimes chosen by powerful men in Ancient Rome, especially widowers like Vespasian, and Marcus Aurelius. Their union could not produce any legitimate offspring who could threaten any heirs, such as those of Antoninus. Also, as one could not have a wife and an official concubine (or two concubines) at the same time, Antoninus avoided being pressed into a marriage with a noblewoman from another family. (Later, Marcus Aurelius would also reject the advances of his former fiancée Ceionia Fabia, Lucius Verus's sister, on the grounds of protecting his children from a stepmother, and took a concubine instead.)^[25][26][27]

Favour with Hadrian

Having filled the offices of

On his accession, Antoninus' name and style became

Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus' betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus' daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus, Marcus' future co-Emperor, would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus' proposal.^[38][39]

Antoninus built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of

He owned palatial villas at Lorium (Etruria) and Villa Magna (Latium).

Lack of warfare

There are no records of any military related acts in his time in which he participated. One modern scholar has written "It is almost certain not only that at no time in his life did he ever see, let alone command, a Roman army, but that, throughout the twenty-three years of his reign, he never went within five hundred miles of a legion."[41]

His reign was the most peaceful in the entire history of the

Although Antonine's Wall was, in principle, much shorter (37 miles in length as opposed to 73), and at first sight more defensible than Hadrian's Wall, the additional area that it enclosed within the Empire was barren, with land use for grazing already in decay.[52] This meant that supply lines to the wall were strained enough such as the costs for maintaining the additional territory outweighed the benefits of doing so.^[53] Also, in the absence of urban development and the ensuing Romanization process, the rear of the wall could not be lastingly pacified.^[54]

It has been therefore speculated that the invasion of Lowland Scotland and the building of the wall had to do mostly with internal politics, that is, offering Antoninus an opportunity to gain some modicum of necessary military prestige at the start of his reign. Actually, the campaign in Britannia was followed by an Imperial salutation, that is, by Antoninus formally taking for the second (and last) time the title of Imperator in 142.^[55] The fact that around the same time coins were struck announcing a victory in Britain points to Antoninus' need to publicise his achievements.^[56] The orator Fronto was later to say that, although Antoninus bestowed the direction of the British campaign to others, he should be regarded as the helmsman who directed the voyage, whose glory, therefore, belonged to him.^[57]

That this quest for some military achievement responded to an actual need is proved by the fact that, although generally peaceful, Antoninus' reign was not free from attempts at usurpation: Historia Augusta mentions two, made by the senators Cornelius Priscianus ("for disturbing the peace of Spain";^[58] Priscianus had also been Lollius Urbicus' successor as governor of Britain) and Atilius Rufius Titianus (possibly a troublemaker already exiled under Hadrian^[59]). Both attempts are confirmed by the Fasti Ostienses as well as by the erasing of Priscianus' name from an inscription.^[60] In both cases, Antoninus was not in formal charge of the ensuing repression: Priscianus committed suicide and Titianus was found guilty by the Senate, with Antoninus abstaining from sequestering their families' properties.^[61]

There were also some troubles in

Nevertheless, Antoninus was virtually unique among emperors in that he dealt with these crises without leaving Italy once during his reign,[66] but instead dealt with provincial matters of war and peace through their governors or through imperial letters to the cities such as Ephesus (of which some were publicly displayed). This style of government was highly praised by his contemporaries and by later generations.^[67]

Antoninus was the last Roman Emperor recognised by the Indian Kingdoms, especially the Kushan Empire.^[68] Raoul McLaughlin quotes Aurelius Victor as saying "The Indians, the Bactrians, and the Hyrcanians all sent ambassadors to Antoninus. They had all heard about the spirit of justice held by this great emperor, justice that was heightened by his handsome and grave countenance, and his slim and vigorous figure." Due to the outbreak of the Antonine epidemic and wars against northern Germanic tribes, the reign of Marcus Aurelius was forced to alter the focus of foreign policies, and matters relating to the Far East were increasingly abandoned in favour of those directly concerning the Empire's survival.^[68]

Economy and administration

Antoninus was regarded as a skilled administrator and as a builder. In spite of an extensive building directive—the free access of the people of Rome to drinking water was expanded with the construction of aqueducts, not only in Rome but throughout the Empire, as well as bridges and roads—the emperor still managed to leave behind a sizable public treasury of around 2.7 billion sesterces. Rome would not witness another Emperor leaving his successor with a surplus for a long time, but this treasury was depleted almost immediately after Antoninus's reign due to the Antonine Plague brought back by soldiers after the Parthian victory.^[69]

The Emperor also famously suspended the collection of taxes from multiple cities affected by natural disasters, such as when fires struck Rome and Narbona, and earthquakes affected

In his dealings with Greek-speaking cities, Antoninus followed the policy adopted by Hadrian of ingratiating himself with local elites, especially with local intellectuals: philosophers, teachers of literature, rhetoricians and physicians were explicitly exempted from any duties involving private spending for civic purposes, a privilege granted by Hadrian that Antoninus confirmed by means of an edict preserved in the Digest (27.1.6.8).^[74] Antoninus also created a chair for the teaching of rhetoric in Athens.^[75]

Antoninus was known as an avid observer of rites of religion and of formal celebrations, both Roman and foreign. He is known for having increasingly formalized the official cult offered to the Great Mother, which from his reign onwards included a bull sacrifice, a taurobolium, formerly only a private ritual, now being also performed for the sake of the Emperor's welfare.^[76] Antoninus also offered patronage to the worship of Mithras, to whom he erected a temple in Ostia.^[77] In 148, he presided over the celebrations of the 900th anniversary of the founding of Rome.

Legal reforms

Antoninus tried to portray himself as a magistrate of the res publica, no matter how extended and ill-defined his competencies were. He is credited with the splitting of the imperial treasury, the fiscus. This splitting had to do with the division of imperial properties into two parts. Firstly, the fiscus itself, or patrimonium, meaning the properties of the "Crown", the hereditary properties of each succeeding person that sat on the throne, transmitted to his successors in office,^[78] regardless of their previous membership in the imperial family.^[79] Secondly, the res privata, the "private" properties tied to the personal maintenance of the Emperor and his family,^[80] something like a Privy Purse. An anecdote in the Historia Augusta biography, where Antoninus replies to Faustina (who complained about his stinginess) that "we have gained an empire [and] lost even what we had before" possibly relates to Antoninus' actual concerns at the creation of the res privata.^[81] While still a private citizen, Antoninus had increased his personal fortune greatly by means of various legacies, the consequence of his caring scrupulously for his relatives.^[82] Also, Antoninus left behind him a reputation for stinginess and was probably determined not to leave his personal property to be "swallowed up by the demands of the imperial throne".^[83]

The res privata lands could be sold and/or given away, while the patrimonium properties were regarded as public.^[84] It was a way of pretending that the Imperial function—and most properties attached to it—was a public one, formally subject to the authority of the Senate and the Roman people.^[85] That the distinction played no part in subsequent political history—that the personal power of the princeps absorbed his role as office-holder—proves that the autocratic logic of the imperial order had already subsumed the old republican institutions.^[86]

Of the public transactions of this period there is only the scantiest of information, but, to judge by what is extant, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful in comparison to those before and after the reign.^[10] However, Antoninus did take a great interest in the revision and practice of the law throughout the empire.^[87] One of his chief concerns was to having local communities conform their legal procedures to existing Roman norms: in a case concerning repression of banditry by local police officers ("irenarchs", Greek for "peace keepers") in Asia Minor, Antoninus ordered that these officers should not treat suspects as already condemned, and also keep a detailed copy of their interrogations, to be used in the possibility of an appeal to the Roman governor.^[88] Also, although Antoninus was not an innovator, he would not always follow the absolute letter of the law; rather he was driven by concerns over humanity and equality, and introduced into Roman law many important new principles based upon this notion.^[87]

In this, the emperor was assisted by five chief lawyers:

Antoninus passed measures to facilitate the

One highlight during his reign occurred in 148, with the nine-hundredth anniversary of the foundation of Rome being celebrated by the hosting of magnificent games in Rome.^[100] It lasted a number of days, and a host of exotic animals were killed, including elephants, giraffes, tigers, rhinoceroses, crocodiles and hippopotamuses. While this increased Antoninus's popularity, the frugal emperor had to debase the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 89% to 83.5, the actual silver weight dropping from 2.88 grams to 2.68 grams.^[49][101]

Scholars name Antoninus Pius as the leading candidate for an individual identified as a friend of Rabbi

Furthermore, a piece of

Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e., Malay Peninsula).^[112][113] Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been discovered in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the significantly greater amount of Roman coins unearthed in India suggest the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centered there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through ancient Iran.^[114]

Death and legacy

Eleusis, Greece, imitating Hadrian's Arch in Athens

In 156, Antoninus Pius turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions.

Marcus Aurelius had already been created consul with Antoninus in 140, receiving the title of Caesar, i.e., heir apparent.^[115] As Antoninus aged, Marcus took on more administrative duties. Marcus's administrative duties increased again after the death, in 156 or 157, of one of Antoninus' most trusted advisers, Marcus Gavius Maximus.

For twenty years, Gavius Maximus had been praetorian prefect, an office that was as much secretarial as military.^[116][117] Gavius Maximus had been awarded with the consular insignia and the honours due a senator.^[118] He had a reputation as a most strict disciplinarian (vir severissimus, according to Historia Augusta) and some fellow equestrian procurators held lasting grudges against him. A procurator named Gaius Censorius Niger died while Gavius Maximus was alive. In his will, Censorius Niger vilified Maximus, creating serious embarrassment for one of the heirs, the orator Fronto.^[119]

Gavius Maximus' death initiated a change in the ruling team. It has been speculated that it was the legal adviser Lucius Volusius Maecianus who assumed the role of grey eminence. Maecianus was briefly Praefect of Egypt, and subsequently Praefectus annonae in Rome. If it was Maecianus who rose to prominence, he may have risen precisely in order to prepare the incoming—and unprecedented—joint succession.^[120] In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Perhaps Antoninus was already ill; in any case, he died before the year was out, probably on 7 March.^[125]

Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at

Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered: when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password, he responded, "aequanimitas" (equanimity).^[128] He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.^[129][130] His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus (surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months).^[126] His record for the second-longest reign would be unbeaten for 168 years, until 329 when it was surpassed by Constantine the Great

.

Antoninus Pius' funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, "elaborate".[131] If his funeral followed the pattern of past funerals, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, while his spirit would rise to the gods' home in the heavens. However, it seems that this was not the case: according to his Historia Augusta biography (which seems to reproduce an earlier, detailed report) Antoninus' body (and not his ashes) was buried in Hadrian's mausoleum. After a seven-day interval (justitium), Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification.^[132] In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus' campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Antoninus, now Divus Antoninus.

A column was dedicated to Antoninus on the Campus Martius,^[12] and the temple he had built in the Forum in 141 to his deified wife Faustina was rededicated to the deified Faustina and the deified Antoninus.^[128] It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.^[133]

Historiography

Sbeïtla, Tunisia

.

Palazzo Altemps

, Rome

The only intact account of his life handed down to us is that of the

Augustan History, an unreliable and mostly fabricated work. Nevertheless, it still contains information that is considered reasonably sound; for instance, it is the only source that mentions the erection of the Antonine Wall in Britain.^[134] Antoninus is unique among Roman emperors in that he has no other biographies.^{[original research?}

]

Antoninus in many ways was the ideal of the landed gentleman praised not only by ancient Romans, but also by later scholars of classical history, such as Edward Gibbon^[135] or the author of the article on Antoninus Pius in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.^[10]

A few months afterwards, on Hadrian's death, he was enthusiastically welcomed to the throne by the Roman people, who, for once, were not disappointed in their anticipation of a happy reign. For Antoninus came to his new office with simple tastes, kindly disposition, extensive experience, a well-trained intelligence and the sincerest desire for the welfare of his subjects. Instead of plundering to support his prodigality, he emptied his private treasury to assist distressed provinces and cities, and everywhere exercised rigid economy (hence the nickname κυμινοπριστης "cummin-splitter"). Instead of exaggerating into treason whatever was susceptible of unfavorable interpretation, he turned the very conspiracies that were formed against him into opportunities for demonstrating his clemency. Instead of stirring up persecution against the Christians, he extended to them the strong hand of his protection throughout the empire. Rather than give occasion to that oppression which he regarded as inseparable from an emperor's progress through his dominions, he was content to spend all the years of his reign in Rome, or its neighbourhood.^[10]

Some historians have a less positive view of his reign. According to the historian J. B. Bury,

however estimable the man, Antoninus was hardly a great statesman. The rest which the Empire enjoyed under his auspices had been rendered possible through Hadrian's activity, and was not due to his own exertions; on the other hand, he carried the policy of peace at any price too far, and so entailed calamities on the state after his death. He not only had no originality or power of initiative, but he had not even the insight or boldness to work further on the new lines marked out by Hadrian.^[136]

German historian Ernst Kornemann has had it in his Römische Geschichte [2 vols., ed. by H. Bengtson, Stuttgart 1954] that the reign of Antoninus comprised "a succession of grossly wasted opportunities", given the upheavals that were to come. There is more to this argument, given that the Parthians in the East were themselves soon to make no small amount of mischief after Antoninus' death. Kornemann's brief is that Antoninus might have waged preventive wars to head off these outsiders. Michael Grant agrees that it is possible that had Antoninus acted decisively sooner (it appears that, on his death bed, he was preparing a large-scale action against the Parthians), the Parthians might have been unable to choose their own time, but current evidence is not conclusive. Grant opines that Antoninus and his officers did act in a resolute manner dealing with frontier disturbances of his time, although conditions for long-lasting peace were not created. On the whole, according to Grant, Marcus Aurelius' eulogistic picture of Antoninus seems deserved, and Antoninus appears to have been a conservative and nationalistic (although he respected and followed Hadrian's example of Philhellenism moderately) Emperor who was not tainted by the blood of either citizen or foe, combined and maintained Numa Pompilius' good fortune, pacific dutifulness and religious scrupulousness, and whose laws removed anomalies and softened harshnesses.^[137]

Krzysztof Ulanowski argues that the claims of military inability are exaggerated, considering that although the sources praise Antoninus' love for peace and his efforts "rather to defend, than enlarge the provinces", he could hardly be considered a pacifist, as shown by the conquest of the Lowlands, the building of the Antonine Wall and the expansion of Germania Superior. Ulanowski also praises Antoninus for being successful in deterrence by diplomatic means.^[138]

Descendants

Although only one of his four children survived to adulthood, Antoninus came to be ancestor to four generations of prominent Romans, including the Emperor Commodus. Hans-Georg Pflaum has identified five direct descendants of Antoninus and Faustina who were consuls in the first half of the third century.^[139]

1. Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (died before 138), died young without issue
2. Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138), died young without issue
3. Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135), who married Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus, suffect consul in 145;^[140] no children known for certain.
4. Annia Galeria Faustina the Younger (21 September between 125 and 130–175), had several children; those who had children were:^[141]
   1. Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (7 March 150–182?), whose children included:
      1. Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus
   2. Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (151–?), whose children included:
      1. Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus
         1. Empress Annia Faustina, Elagabalus' third wife
   3. Annia Aurelia Fadilla (159–after 211)
   4. Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160–213)

Nerva–Antonine family tree

v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree
Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Salonia Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][x][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xi] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xii] Rupilia Faustina[xiii][xiv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xv] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia unknown[xvi] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xiii] Calvisia Domitia Lucilla[xvii] Fundania[xviii] M. Annius Libo[xiii] Faustina[xv] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xv] L. Aelius Caesar[xvi] Avidia[xvi] Cornificia[xiii] Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180)[xix] Faustina Minor[xix] C. Avidius Cassius[xx] Aurelia Fadilla[xv] Lucius Verus (r. 161–169)[xvi] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvi] Plautius Quintillus[xxi] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvi] Cornificia Minor[xxii] M. Petronius Sura Commodus (r. 177–192)[xix] Fadilla[xxii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xix] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xix] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvi] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Junius Licinius Balbus ? Furia Sabina Tranquillina Gordian III (r. 238–244)
(1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish-purple indicates emperor of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish-purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships Small Caps = posthumously deified ( Augustae , or other)
Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus". ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322. ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ It is uncertain whether Rupilia Faustina was Frugi's daughter by Salonia Matidia or another woman. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117.
References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2 . Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2 . ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9 . Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

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39. ^ Birley 2000, pp. 53–54.
40. ^ H.G. Pflaum, "Les prêtres du culte impérial sous le règne d'Antonin le Pieux". In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 111^e année, N. 2, 1967. pp. 194–209. Available at [1] Archived 2 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 27 January 2016
41. ISSN 0075-4358
    , p. 242.
42. ^ ^{a b} Bury 1893, p. 525.
43. ^ René Rebuffat, '"Enceintes urbaines et insécurité en Maurétanie Tingitane" In: Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, Antiquité, tome 86, n°1. 1974. pp. 501–522. Available at [2] Archived 4 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 26 December 2015
44. ^ Michel Christol, "L'armée des provinces pannoniennes et la pacification des révoltes maures sous Antonin le Pieux". In: Antiquités africaines, 17, 1981. pp. 133–141.
45. ISBN 0-415-13814-0
    , p. 17; Rebuffat "Enceintes urbaines"
46. ISBN 0-19-280138-4
    , p. 149
47. ISBN 978-0-19-925237-4
    , p. 137
48. ^ Bowman 2000, p. 152.
49. ^ ^{a b c} Bowman 2000, p. 155.
50. ISBN 0-415-31943-9
    , p. 49
51. ^ Jean-Louis Voisin, "Les Romains, chasseurs de têtes". In: Du châtiment dans la cité. Supplices corporels et peine de mort dans le monde antique. Table ronde de Rome (9–11 novembre 1982) Rome : École Française de Rome, 1984. pp. 241–293. Available at [3] Archived 2 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 14 January 2016
52. ^ W. E. Boyd (1984),"Environmental change and Iron Age land management in the area of the Antonine Wall, central Scotland: a summary".Glasgow Archaeological Journal, Volume 11 Issue 1, pp. 75–81
53. ISBN 978-1-84884-377-6
    , p. 75
54. ISBN 0-8018-2158-4
    , p. 88
55. ISBN 978-1-8539-9698-6
    , p. 53
56. ^ Salway, 149
57. ISBN 0-415-17125-3
    , p. 61
58. ISBN 978-0-1910-1676-9
    , entry "Antoninus Pius"
59. ISBN 978-0-891-30391-6
    , p. 103
60. ISBN 2-02-057798-4
    , p. 28, footnote 61; Salway, 149
61. ISBN 84-475-3017-5
    , p. 301
62. ISBN 978-1-351-13570-2
    .
63. ISBN 90-04-12041-6
    , p. 425
64. ^ Birley 2000, p. 113.
65. ISBN 978-0-8108-6096-4
    , entry "Arshakuni/Arsacid", p. 174
66. ^ Speidel, Michael P., Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperors' Horse Guards, Harvard University Press, 1997, p. 50
67. ^ See Victor, 15:3
68. ^
    ISBN 9781847252357
    .
69. ISBN 9780231504072
    .
70. ISBN 90-04-12578-7
    , p. 87
71. ^ E.E. Bryant, The Reign of Antoninus Pius. Cambridge University Press: 1895, pp. 45–46, 68.
72. ISBN 0-85364-564-7
    , p. 305
73. ISBN 978-0-19-928863-2
    , p. 133
74. ISBN 978-3-11-034014-3
    , p. 381
75. ^ Paul Graindor, "Antonin le Pieux et Athènes". Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, tome 6, fasc. 3–4, 1927. pp. 753–756. Available at [5] Archived 3 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 22 January 2016
76. ISBN 978-0-415-52217-5
    , p. 92
77. ^ Samuel Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius. Library of Alexandria, s.d.g.
78. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8
    , entry "Patrimonium".
79. ^ After the death of Nero, the personal properties of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had been appropriated by the Flavians, and therefore turned into public properties: Carrié & Roussele, 586
80. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, 586
81. ISBN 9780521263351
    , p. 150
82. ISBN 0-520-07103-4
    , p. 98
83. ^ Birley 2000, p. 71.
84. ISBN 978-0-415-84054-5
    , p. 49
85. ISBN 3-11-004571-0
    , p. 112
86. ISBN 978-1-4051-7969-0
    , pp. 73–75
87. ^ ^{a b c d} Bury 1893, p. 526.
88. ISBN 978-0-7486-2050-0
    , p. 91
89. ^ John Anthony Crook, Consilium Principis: Imperial Councils and Counsellors from Augustus to Diocletian. Cambridge U.P.: 1955, p. 67
90. ISBN 90-279-7744-5
    , p. 477
91. ISBN 978-3-319-12267-0
    , p. 79
92. ^ ^{a b c} Bury 1893, p. 527.
93. ISBN 9780521263351
    , p. 162
94. ^ Aubert, Jean-Jacques. "L'esclave en droit romain ou l'impossible réification de l'homme". Esclavage et travail forcé, Cahiers de la Recherche sur les droits fondamentaux (CRDF). Vol. 10. 2012.
95. ISBN 978-2-84867-169-7
    , p. 159
96. ISBN 2-02-025819-6
    , p. 290
97. ^ First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII
98. ISBN 0-8122-1599-0
    , p. 29
99. ^ Grant, pp. 154–155.
100. ^ Bowman 2000, p. 154.
101. ^ Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate"
102. Alexander Severus
     .
103. ^ ^{a b c} For a full translation of that passage, see: Paul Halsall (2000) [1998]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Archived from the original on 10 September 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
104. ^ Harper, Kyle (2017). The Fate of Rome. Princeton, New Jersey, United States: Princeton University Press.
105. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.698.1744..
     Chinese original: "Chinese Text Project Dictionary"
     . ctext.org.
106. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8
     .
107. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0
     .
108. JSTOR 605541
     .
109. ^ Hill (2009), p. 27 and nn. 12.18 and 12.20.
110. ^ Hill (2009), p. 27.
111. ISBN 2503521789
     .
112. ^
     ISBN 0-415-24219-3
     .
113. ^
     ISBN 1-74114-893-6
     .
114. ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6
     .
115. ISBN 978-0-7391-7638-2
     , pp. 74–75.
116. ^ Birley 2000, p. 112.
117. ^ Grant, The Antonines, 14
118. ISBN 9004109579
     , p. 389
119. ^ Champlin, Final Judgments, 16
120. ^ Michel Christol, "Préfecture du prétoire et haute administration équestre à la fin du règne d'Antonin le Pieux et au début du règne de Marc Aurèle". In: Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz, 18, 2007. pp. 115–140. Available at [6] Archived 2 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 27 January 2016
121. ISBN 9781107092112
     .
122. ^ Hammond, M. (1938). The Tribunician Day during the Early Empire. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, 15, p. 46.
123. ^ Istituto Italiano d'Arti Grafiche (1956). Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 24–25. p. 101.
124. ISBN 9783110018851
     .
125. ^ IGRR I, 1509. The date is found in an inscription dedicated to Titus Flavius Xenion.^[121] The Feriale Duranum 1.21., written half a century later, implies that his successors took power the day before: "Prid(ie) Non[is Ma]r[tis". However, and for some reason, most historians who cite the passage indicate that it occurred on 7 March (nones martis).^{[122][123][124]} It's not clear whether the error comes from the authors or the digitized version. Either way, this is the universally accepted date.^[10]
126. ^ ^{a b} Bowman 2000, p. 156.
127. ^ ^{a b} Victor, 15:7
128. ^ ^{a b} Bury 1893, p. 532.
129. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8
130. ^ Birley 2000, p. 114.
131. ^ HA Marcus 7.10, tr. David Magie, cited in Birley 2000, pp. 118, 278 n.6.
132. ^ Robert Turcan, "Origines et sens de l'inhumation à l'époque impériale". In: Revue des Études Anciennes. Tome 60, 1958, n°3–4. pp. 323–347. Available at [7] Archived 3 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 14 January 2016
133. ^ Birley 2000, p. 118.
134. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Pius 5:4
135. ISBN 9781910630761
     .
136. ^ Bury 1893, p. 524.
137. ISBN 9781317972112
     .
138. ISBN 9789004324763
     .
139. ^ Pflaum, "Les gendres de Marc-Aurèle" Archived 5 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Journal des savants (1961), pp. 28–41
140. ^ Ronald Syme, "Antonine Relatives: Ceionii and Vettuleni", Athenaeum, 35 (1957), p. 309
141. ^ Based on Table F, "The Children of Faustina II" in Birley 2000

Sources

Primary sources

• Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 70, English translation
• Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribu", English translation
• Historia Augusta, The Life of Antoninus Pius, English translation. Note that the Historia Augusta includes pseudohistorical elements.

Secondary sources

• Weigel, Richard D. (2 August 2023). "Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138–161) De Imperatoribus Romanis".
• Bowman, Alan K. (2000). The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192. Cambridge University Press.
• Birley, Anthony (2000). Marcus Aurelius. Routledge.
• Bury, J. B. (1893). A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius. Harper.
• ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2
  .
• Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. BookSurge.
  ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1
  .
• Hüttl, W. (1936) [1933]. Antoninus Pius. Vol. I & II, Prag.
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Antoninus Pius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 148–149. This source lists:
  • Bossart-Mueller, Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A. (1868)
  • Bryant, The Reign of Antonine (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895)
  • Lacour-Gayet, A. le Pieux et son Temps (1888)
  • Watson, P. B. (1884). "ii". Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. London: New York, Harper.
    ISBN 9780836956672
    .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Titus Aurelius Fulvius Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius.

Antoninus Pius Nerva–Antonine dynasty Born: 19 September 86 Died: 7 March 161
Regnal titles
Preceded by Hadrian	Roman emperor 138–161	Succeeded by Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus
Political offices
Preceded by G. Herennius Capella L. Coelius Rufus as suffect consuls	Roman consul 120 with L. Catilius Severus Iulianus Claudius Reginus	Succeeded by G. Quinctius Certus Poblicius Marcellus T. Rutilius Propinquus as suffect consuls
Preceded by P. Cassius Secundus M. Nonius Mucianus as suffect consuls	Roman consul II January–April 139 with G. Bruttius Praesens L. Fulvius Rusticus II	Succeeded by L. Minicius Natalis Quadronius Verus L. Claudius Proculus as suffect consuls
Preceded by M. Ceccius Justinus G. Julius Bassus as suffect consuls	Roman consul III January 140 with Marcus Aurelius	Succeeded by Q. Antonius Isauricus L. Aurelius Flaccus as suffect consuls
Preceded by L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus D. Velius Fidus as suffect consuls	Roman consul IV January–February 145 with Marcus Aurelius II	Succeeded by L. Plautius Lamia Silvanus L. Poblicola Priscus as suffect consuls