Anuradhapura Kingdom

Coordinates: 8°21′0.000″N 80°23′1.000″E / 8.35000000°N 80.38361111°E / 8.35000000; 80.38361111
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Kingdom of Anuradhapura
අනුරාධපුර රාජධානිය (Sinhala)
Anurādhapura Rājadhāniya
அனுராதபுர இராச்சியம் (Tamil)
Anurātapura irācciyam
437 BC–1017 AD
Flag of Anuradhapura Kingdom
Flag of King Dutugamunu (161-137 B.C.), as depicted in the
Theravada Buddhism (from 267 BC)
Hinduism (~267 BC)[4][5]


Minority:
Mahinda V
Historical eraAnuradhapura period
• Established
437 BC
• Disestablished
1017 AD
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Kingdom of Tambapanni
Chola conquest of Anuradhapura

flag Sri Lanka portal

Anuradhapura Kingdom (

Pandukabhaya in 437 BC, whose authority extended throughout the country.[11]

Tooth Relic of the Buddha in Sri Lanka and the patronage extended by her rulers.[12]

During the Anuradhapura era, the country was invaded by South Indians several times. Rulers such as

Dhatusena are noted for defeating South Indian invaders and unifying the country. Other rulers such as Sena II are notable for dispatching forces to the South Indian mainland, and gaining several victories such as the sacking of Madurai in 862
.

The kingdom was largely based on agriculture, hence the construction of irrigation works was a major achievement of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, ensuring water supply in the dry zone and helping the country grow mostly self-sufficient. Several kings, most notably

Mahasena, built large reservoirs and canals, which created a vast and complex irrigation network in the Rajarata area throughout the Anuradhapura period. These constructions are an indication of the advanced technical and engineering skills used to create them. The famous paintings and structures at Sigiriya; the Ruwanwelisaya, Jetavana stupas, and other large stupas; large buildings like the Lovamahapaya
; and religious works (like the numerous Buddha statues) are landmarks demonstrating the Anuradhapura period's advancement in sculpting.

The city of Anuradhapura

According the chronicle

Vijaya (543–505 BC) arrived in Sri Lanka, having been banished from his homeland in India. He eventually brought the island under his control and established himself as king. After this, his retinue established villages and colonies throughout the country. One of these was established by Anuradha, a minister of King Vijaya, on the banks of a stream called Kolon and was named Anuradhagama after himself and the Anuradha Nakshatra.[13][14]

In 377 BC, King

Kashyapa I (473–491), who chose Sigiriya to be his capital.[17] The city is also marked on Ptolemy's world map.[18]

History

According to the

Another notable king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom is

Mahinda V (982–1017), the last king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, the power of the king had deteriorated that he could not even properly organize the collection of taxes.[33]

Arrival of Buddhism

Large Bo tree (Ficus religiosa) surrounded by a white wall and a golden fence.
The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi today, to which the Kingdom was offered by Devanampiya Tissa.

One of the most notable events during the Anuradhapura Kingdom was the introduction of

Mahinda, and a novice.[35] They encountered Devanampiya Tissa at Mihintale on a Poson poya day. After this meeting, king Devanampiya Tissa embraced Buddhism and the order of monks was established in the country.[36] The king, guided by Arahat Mahinda, took steps to firmly establish Buddhism in the country.[37]

Soon afterwards, the

enlightenment. The king sent his cousin, Prince Aritta to Dambakolapatuna to escort the delegation back to Anuradhapura. The bo sapling was then planted at the Mahamevna Gardens in Anuradhapura[39] and bestowed the newly planted Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi.[40]
on his kingdom. Prince Aritta along with other men was ordained by Arahat Madinda, thus establishing the order of the monks in Sri Lanka. Similarly Lady Anula, a member of the royal family was ordained along with 400 other women. This was the origin of the order of the nuns. Subsequently Buddhism was established as the main religion of Sri Lanka.

Arrival of the Sacred Tooth Relic

During the reign of

Tooth Relic of the Buddha to Sri Lanka because of unrest in their country.[41] Kithsirimevan carried it in procession and placed the relic in a mansion named Datadhatughara.[42] He ordered this procession to be held annually which is still taking place in the country. The Tooth Relic of the Buddha soon became one of the most sacred objects in the country and a symbol of kingship. The person who was in possession of the Tooth Relic was identified to be the rightful ruler of the country.[43] Therefore, it was often enshrined within the royal palace itself.[44]

Invasions

Several invasions have been made against the Anuradhapura Kingdom, all of which were launched from

Chola prince named Elara (205–161 BC).[45] Elara ruled for 44 years before being defeated by Dutthagamani (Duttugamunu) [46] However, the Mahavamsa records that these kings from the mainland ruled the country fairly and lawfully.[45]

Wanghuitu
(王会图), circa 650 CE

The country was invaded again in 103 BC by

Dhathusena who regained power in 459.[47] More invasions and raids from South India occurred during the reigns of Sena I (833–853)[48] and Udaya III (935–938).[49] The final invasion during the Anuradhapura Kingdom, which ended the kingdom and left the country under the rule of the Cholas, took place during the reign of Mahinda V.[50]

However, none of these invaders could extend their rule to

Ruhuna, the southern part of the country, and Sri Lankan rulers and their heirs always organized their armies from this area and managed to regain their throne. Throughout the history of Sri Lanka, Ruhuna served as a base for resistance movements.[31]

Fall of Anuradhapura

Culavamsa says that the capital at Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola army.[52] The capital was at Polonnaruwa which was renamed "Jananathamangalam".[51]

A partial consolidation of Chola power in

Mahavamsa, the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18.[54] But the south of the island, which lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation, was never really consolidated by the Chola. Thus, under Rajendra, Chola expansion in Ceylon began to reach a point of diminishing returns.[53] According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda's crown, queen, daughter, a vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029.[55][54]

The Chola conquest had one permanent result in that the capital of Anuradhapura was destroyed by the Cholas.[51] Polonnaruwa, a military outpost of the Sinhalese kingdom,[56] was renamed Jananathamangalam, after a title assumed by Rajaraja I, and became the new centre of administration for the Cholas. This was because earlier Tamil invaders had only aimed at overlordship of Rajarata in the north, but the Cholas were bent on control of the whole island.[51] There is practically no trace of Chola rule in Anuradhapura. When Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabahu I, he crowned himself at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa for it being more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent province of Rohana much easier.[51]

Government and military

Subdivisions of Anuradhapura Kingdom

Monarch

The kingdom was under the rule of a king. The consecration ceremonies and rituals associated with kingship began during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa,

patrilineal, or if otherwise, inherited by the brother of the previous king.[59] The king of Anuradhapura was recognized as the supreme ruler throughout the island, even at times when he did not have absolute control over it.[60]

Four dynasties have ruled the kingdom from its founding to its ending. The rulers from Vijaya to

Sri Maha Bodhi to Sri Lanka.[63] The last dynasty of the Anuradhapura period, the second Lambakanna dynasty, started with Manavanna (684–718) seizing the throne in 684 and continued till the last ruler of Anuradhapura, Mahinda V.[64]

Officials

Royal officials were divided into three categories; officials attached to the palace, officials of central administration and officials of provincial administration. One of the most important positions was the purohita, the advisor of the king.[59] The king also had a board of ministers called amati paheja.[65] In central administration, senapati (Commander-in-Chief of the Army) was a second position only to the king and held by a member of the nobility.[66] This position, and also the positions of yuvaraja (sub king), administrative positions in the country's provinces and major ports and provinces, were often held by relatives of the king.[67]

The kingdom was often divided into sections or provinces and governed separately. Rajarata, the area around the capital, was under the direct administration of the king, while the Ruhuna (southern part of the country) and the Malaya Rata (hill country) were governed by officials called apa and mapa. These administrative units were further divided into smaller units called rata. Officials called ratiya or ratika were in charge of these.[N 4] The smallest administrative unit was the gama (village), under a village chief known as gamika or gamladda.[68]

Buddhist priesthood

A close link existed between the ruler and the Sangha (Buddhist priesthood) since the introduction of Buddhism to the country. This relationship was further strengthened during Dutthagamani's reign. The monks often advised and even guided the king on decisions. This association was initially with the Mahavihara sect, but by the middle of the 1st century BC, the Abhayagiri sect had also begun to have a close link to the ruling of the country. By the end of the 3rd century AD, the Jetavana sect had also become close to the ruler.[69] Estrangements between the ruler and the priesthood often weakened the government, as happened during the reign of Lanjatissa.[70] Even Valagamba's resistance movement was initially hampered because of a rift with the Mahavihara, and he succeeded only after a reconciliation was affected.[71] Some rulers patronized only one sect, but this often led to unrest in the country and most rulers equally supported all sects.[72] Despite this, religious establishments were often plundered during times of internal strife by the rulers themselves, such as during the reigns of Dathopatissa I (639–650) and Kashyapa II (650–659).[67]

Law

Customs, traditions and moral principles based on Buddhism were used as the bases of law. Specific laws were eventually developed and adopted. Samantapasadika, a 5th-century commentary, gives details of complex regulations on the theft of fish. The chief judicial officer was known as viniccayamacca and there were several judicial officers under him, known as vinicchayaka. Apart from them, village headmen and provincial governors were also given the power to issue judgments. The king was the final judge in legal disputes, and all cases against members of the royal family and high dignitaries of the state were judged by him. However, the king had to exercise this power with care and after consulting with his advisers.[73] Udaya I recorded judgments that were regarded as important precedents in the royal library in order to maintain uniformity in judicial decisions.[74]

Initially, the administration of justice at the village level was the responsibility of village assemblies, which usually consisted of the elders of the village.[75] However, towards the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom a group of ten villages, known as dasagam, was responsible for upholding justice in that area. The laws and legal measures to be followed by them were proclaimed by the king. Several rock inscriptions that record these proclamations have been found in archaeological excavations. Punishments differed from ruler to ruler. Some kings, such as Sanghabodhi (247–249) and Voharika Tissa (209–231) were lenient in this aspect, while rulers like Ilanaga (33–43) and Jettha Tissa I (263–273) were harsher. However, crimes such as treason, murder, and slaughter of cattle were generally punishable by death.[76]

Military

During the early stages, the Anuradhapura Kingdom did not have a strong regular army except for a small body of soldiers. These were assigned to guarding the capital and the royal palace. The King had the right to demand an able-bodied son for military service from every family in his kingdom. In times of war, a larger army was formed using this method. An army consisted of four main divisions; an elephant corps, cavalry, chariots and infantry.[77] This combination was called Chaturangani Sena (fourfold army). However, the majority of the army was infantry composed of swordsmen, spearmen and archers.[78][79]

When such an army was prepared, it was commanded by several generals. The

Sieges, often lasting several months, were common during warfare. Single combat between the opposing kings or commanders, mounted on elephants, often decided the outcome of the battle.[80]

South Indian

Pandyan king.[81] Gajabahu I also launched an invasion against South India[N 5] to rescue 12,000 captives, and brought back 12,000 prisoners as well as the freed captives.[82] Surprisingly, however, a navy was not considered important during the Anuradhapura Kingdom, and one was rarely maintained. This would have been the first line of defence for the island nation and would also have been helpful in dealing with invasions from South India.[80]

Trade and economy

The economy of the Anuradhapura Kingdom was based mainly on

cloth. Sugarcane and Sesame were also grown and there are frequent references in classical literature to these agricultural products. Finger millet was grown as a substitute for rice, particularly in the dry zone of the country.[86] Surpluses of these products, mainly rice, were exported.[87][88]

A showcase with a number of coins arranged in a circle.
Ancient coins belonging to the Anuradhapura period on display at the museum of Anuradhapura.

The primary goods exported during the Anuradhapura period are

ceramic ware, silks, perfumes and wines were imported from other countries.[89]
The city of Anuradhapura itself became an important commercial centre as the residence of many foreign merchants from around the world. From very early times was a settlement of Greeks known as Yavanas. Professor Merlin Peris, former Professor of Classics at the University of Peradeniya, writes that “The Greeks whom King Pandukabhaya settled in the West Gate of Anuradhapura were not the second or third generation of Greeks who arrived in NW India but were men who, just two decades ago at the most, left Greek homelands as Alexander’s camp followers and come to Sri Lanka with or in the wake of Alexander’s troops. When their fellow Greeks showed reluctance to push further south, these Greeks apparently had done so.”[90]

By the fifth century one of

Persians in addition to Tamil and Arab merchants.[91] These foreign merchants, mainly Arabs, often acted as middlemen in these imports and exports.[77] By the ninth century these Muslim traders had established themselves around the ports of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, they would soon form the still extant Muslim community of the island.[92] Luxury cloth was also imported from Eastern India and China.[86] A stone inscription in Anuradhapura implies that the market or bazaar was an important functionality in the city.[93] Trade was limited in villages since they were mostly self-sufficient, but essential commodities such as salt and metal had to be obtained from outside.[94] The country's position in the Indian Ocean and its natural bays made it a centre of international trade transit.[95] Ports such as Mahatittha (Mannar) and Gokanna (Trincomalee) were used as trading ports during the Anuradhapura Kingdom.[96]

Bronze imitation of a Roman coin, Sri Lanka, 4th-8th century

Currency was often used for settling judicial fines,

Dharmacakra were commonly imprinted on the coins of this period.[101]

The primary tax of this period was named bojakapati (grain tax) and charged for land used for cultivation.

Customs duties were also imposed in ports.[104] Those unable to pay these taxes in cash were expected to take part in services such as repairing reservoirs. The administration of taxes was the duty of Badagarika, the king's treasurer.[105]

Culture

Typical layout of the tank, settlements and paddy fields in a traditional dry zone village.

Culture in the Anuradhapura Kingdom was largely based on Buddhism with the slaughter of animals for food considered low and unclean. As a result, animal husbandry, except for the rearing of

bullock carts were also used for transport.[109]

Metalwork was an important and well-developed craft, and metal tools such as axes, mammoties and hoes were widely used. Weapons and tools of iron and steel were produced on a large scale for the military.[110] A good indication of the development of metalwork of this period is the Lovamahapaya, which had been roofed entirely with copper.[111]

Villages were usually concentrated around irrigation reservoirs to enable easy access to water for agriculture. Houses stood immediately below the reservoir embankment, between the water and the paddy fields below. This facilitated easy control of the water supply to the fields and also supported the maintenance of domestic gardens for fruit and vegetable production.[112] A village typically consisted of a cluster of dwellings, paddy fields, a reservoir, a grazing ground, shift crop reserves and a village forest. In areas of high rainfall, a perennial watercourse often took the place of the reservoir.[75] Inland fishing was widespread during the Anuradhapura Kingdom period because of the numerous reservoirs.[113] Although not entirely absent, sea fishing was not common during this period mainly because of the rudimentary nature of transporting sea fish to cities which were located far inland.[114]

Women appear to have enjoyed considerable freedom and independence during this period.[115] Dutthagamani frequently sought his mother's advice during his military campaign.[116] Rock inscriptions show that women donated caves and temples for the use of the sangha. However, there are no records of women holding any administrative posts. It is not clear if women were given equal footing with men, but they did have complete freedom in religious matters.[117]

Religion

Gilded bronze statue of the Bodhisattva Tara, dated to the 8th century, found in the eastern coast of Sri Lanka

Before the adoption of Buddhism by the royalty, there was no single organized religion or proper state religion but a wide variety of different belief systems were practiced some of which received royal patronage.

Abhayagiriya was built, represented several schools of Buddhist thought. It did not restrict itself to Theravada and accepted Mahayana and Tantric ideas as well. Little evidence exists on the Jetavana fraternity which was established after the Jetavanaramaya was built, later than the other two. However, it too was receptive to new and more liberal views regarding Buddhism.[121]

Rulers sponsored

Gothabhaya (249–262) expelled several monks from the order for supporting such views.[122] A change in this occurred when Mahasena embraced Mahayana teachings and acted against Theravada institutions. However, he too accommodated Theravada teachings after the population rebelled against him.[123] As the kingdom and the authority of kings declined, Mahayana and Tantric doctrines again began to spread, however, Theravada remained the main and most widespread doctrine.[124]

Koneswaram Hindu temple
was constructed in the Anuradhapura Kingdom era.

Followers of

Konesvaram temple had been constructed.[125] Historical sources[N 7] indicate that there were also Jains in Anuradhapura during the reign of Valagamba.[126]

A community of Christians are believed to have migrated and settled in the Kingdom likely introduced by Saint

Nestorian Christians. In 1912, the discovery of the Anuradhapura cross indicated a possibility of a strong Christian population during the Anuradhapura period.[128]

The Anuradhapura Cross: the most ancient symbol of Christianity in Sri Lanka.

Nestorian Christians held some influence and power in the Anuradhapura Kingdom, particularly during the reign of King Dathusena.

There was also a presence of Muslim Traders from Arabia and Persia.

Literature

From the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, inscriptions are recorded in the

Brāhmī script. This gradually developed into the modern Sinhala script, but this was not complete by the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The first reference in historical sources to any written work is about 80 BC, but both Sinhala and Pali literature existed even two centuries before this, if not earlier.[129] The oldest Sinhala literature is found at Sigiriya.[130] Poems written from the 6th century to the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom are found among the graffiti on the mirror wall at Sigiriya. Most of these verses are describing or even addressed the female figures depicted in the frescoes of Sigiriya.[131] The majority of these poems have been written between the 8th and 10th centuries.[132]

Only three Sinhala books survive from the Anuradhapura period. One of them, Siyabaslakara, was written in the 9th or 10th century on the art of poetry and is based on the Sanskrit Kavyadarsha. Dampiya Atuva Gatapadaya is another, and is a glossary for the Pali Dhammapadatthakatha, providing Sinhala words and synonyms for Pali words. The third book is Mula Sikha Ha Sikhavalanda, a set of disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks. Both these have been written during the last two centuries of the Anuradhapura period.[133]

During the reign of Valagamba, the Pali

Mahavamsa have been written during the Anuradhapura Kingdom, and are still useful as resources for studying the history of the country.[135][136]

Art

Painting on a rock face depicting two women, one dark-skinned and the other fair-skinned. Both are wearing jewellery and flowers, and both figures appear to be hidden in clouds below the waist.
The Sigiriya frescoes are the oldest and best preserved paintings belonging to the Anuradhapura period.

The Sigiriya Frescoes found at Sigiriya, Sri Lanka were painted during the reign of King Kashyapa I (ruled 477 — 495 AD). Depicting female figures carrying flowers, they are the oldest surviving paintings of the Anuradhapura period.[137] Various theories exist as to who are shown in these paintings. Some suggest that they are apsaras (celestial nymphs),[138] others suggest that they are the ladies of the king's court or even a representation of lightning and rain clouds.[139] Although they bear some similarity to the paintings of Ajanta in India, there are significant differences in style and composition suggesting that these are examples of a distinctive Sri Lankan school of art.[140]

Paintings from a cave at Hindagala date back to the late Anuradhapura period, and may even belong to the same period as the Sigiriya paintings. The paintings of Sigiriya and Hindagala are the only surviving specimens of the art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. However, remnants of paintings indicate that the walls and ceilings of some buildings and the inside walls of stupas and vahalkadas were also painted.[137] Saddhatissa had employed painters to decorate the Ruwanweli Seya when his brother Duttugemunu wanted to see it on his death bed.[141]

Statue making, most noticeably

Maligavila and Buduruvagala. The Buduruvagala statue is the tallest in the country, standing at 50 feet (15 m). All these statues are carved out of rock.[144]

The carvings at Isurumuniya are some of the best examples of the stone carving art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. Skill in arts was a respected and valued trait during this period and artists were well rewarded by the rulers. The Mahavamsa records that Jettha Tissa II (328–337) was himself skilled in stone and ivory carving.[145]

Architecture and engineering

Architecture

King Dutthagamani constructed Ruwanweli Seya, the first large stupa, beginning a practice which would be followed by subsequent rulers.

The construction of

Ruwanweli Seya, standing 300 feet (91 m) high with a circumference of 298 feet (91 m).[146]

The Anuradhapura dagabas which date from the early centuries of the Anuradhapura period, are of such colossal proportions that they constitute the largest structures of their type anywhere in the Buddhist World, even rivalling the Pyramids of Egypt in size.[147]

The

Abhayagiri stupa in the Abhayagiriya monastic complex is another large stupa of the Anuradhapura period the original height of which was 350 feet (110 m). The Jetavana stupa, constructed by Mahasen, is the largest in the country.[148] Stupas had deep and well-constructed foundations, and the builders were clearly aware of the attributes of the materials used for construction. Suitable methods for each type of material have been used to lay foundations on a firm basis.[149]

All buildings have been adorned with elaborate carvings and sculptures and were supported by large stone columns. These stone columns can be seen in several buildings such as the

terra cotta pipes were used to carry water to drainage pits. Large ponds were attached to some monasteries, such as the Kuttam Pokuna (twin pond). Hospital complexes have also been found close to monasteries. Buildings were constructed using timber, bricks and stones. Stones were used for foundations and columns, while brick was used for walls. Lime mortar was used for plastering walls.[151]

Irrigation and water management

Rainfall in the dry zone of Sri Lanka is limited to 50-75 inches. Under these conditions, rain-fed cultivation was difficult, forcing early settlers to develop means to store water in order to maintain a constant supply of water for their cultivations. Small irrigation tanks were constructed at the village level, to support the cultivations of that village.[152] The earliest medium-scale irrigation tank is the Basawakkulama reservoir built by King Pandukabhaya. Nuwara wewa and Tissa Wewa reservoirs were constructed a century later. These reservoirs were enlarged in subsequent years by various rulers.[153]

ancient irrigation lake
in Anuradhapura.

Construction of large scale reservoirs began in the 1st century AD under the direction of

Minneriya tank, which covered 4,670 acres (18.9 km2) and had a 1.25 miles (2.01 km) long and 44 feet (13 m) high embankment. He was named Minneri Deiyo (god of Minneriya) for this construction and is still referred to as such by the people in that area.[154] The Kavudulu reservoir, Pabbatanta canal and Hurulu reservoir were among the large irrigation constructions carried out during this period. These constructions contributed immensely to the improvement of agriculture in the northern and eastern parts of the dry zone. Reservoirs were also constructed using tributaries of the Daduru Oya during this period, thereby supplying water to the southwestern part of the dry zone. This conservation and distribution of water resources ensured that the water supply was sufficient throughout the dry zone.[155] James Emerson Tennent[N 8]
described the ancient irrigation network as:

... there seems every reason to believe that from their own subsequent experience and the prodigious extent to which they occupied themselves in the formulation of works of this kind, they attained a facility unsurpassed by the people of any other country.[156]

A partial view of a large lake, seen over a tree line. The further bank is covered by a thick forest, and the sun is setting over a mountain range in the background.
The Kandalama Reservoir, believed to have been constructed during the latter stage of the kingdom, is one of many tanks that form an intricate network.

The water resources of the dry zone were further exploited during the times of Upatissa I and

Giritale had come into existence, further expanding the irrigation network. However, from the 8th century to the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, there wasn't much activity in the construction of irrigation works.[29]

Technology

Large rectangular artificial pond with carved stone sides
The water for the Kuttam Pokuna was obtained through underground conduits

Advanced technology was required for the planning and construction of large reservoirs and canals. When constructing reservoirs, the gaps between low

damming watercourses. Two different techniques were used in construction; one method involved making an embankment using natural rock formations across a valley and the other involved diverting water courses through constructed canals to reservoirs. All the reservoirs and canals in an area were interconnected by an intricate network, so that excess water from one will flow into the other.[157] The locations of these constructions indicate that the ancient engineers were aware of geological formations in the sites as well, and made effective use of them.[158] Underground conduits have also been constructed to supply water to and from artificial ponds, such as in the Kuttam Pokuna and the ponds at Sigiriya.[159][160]

The 54 miles (87 km) long Jayaganga has a gradient of six inches to the mile, which indicates that the builders had expert knowledge and accurate measuring devices to achieve the minimum gradient in the water flow. The construction of Bisokotuva, a cistern sluice used to control the outward flow of water in reservoirs, indicates a major advancement in irrigation technology. Since the 3rd century, these sluices, made of brick and stone, were placed at various levels in the embankments of reservoirs.[161][162]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ This flag was known as the only ancient representation of the lion flag of the Sinhalese but in 1957, the lion figure on it was defaced by a vandal.[2]
  2. three gems
    ".
  3. ^ This is also known as the Anuradhapura dynasty, starting from Pandukabhaya.
  4. ^ This position was called rataladda by the later period of the Anuradhapura Kingdom.
  5. ^ This is disputed by some historians however since there is no mention of this in the Mahavamsa although the Rajavaliya describes the event in detail.
  6. ^ According to Samantapasadika, the use of coins in transactions involving the purchasing of items had become common by the 5th century.
  7. Dipavamsa and Rajavaliya
    .
  8. Ceylon
    from 1845 to 1850. He has written several books on the country and its history.

References

Citations

  1. ^ Seneviratna, Anuradha (1983). Golden Rock Temple of Dambulla: Caves of infinite Buddhas. Central Cultural Fund. p. 9.
  2. ^ Godakumbura, C.E. (1969). History of archaeology in Ceylon. Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, New Series (Vol XIII). p. 36. We all agree with Deraniyagala when he considers that the defacing of the lion depicted upon Dutugemunu's flag in the famous Dambulla frescoes as a national loss. This, so far as we know, is the only ancient representation of the lion-flag of the Sinhalese.
  3. .
  4. ^ a b De Silva 2014, p. 58.
  5. ^ "The downfall of the Anuradhapura kingdom and South Indian influences" (PDF). Retrieved 3 January 2018.
  6. ^ https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-sri-lanka/
  7. ^ https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-sri-lanka/
  8. ^ https://5pillarsuk.com/2021/03/21/the-muslims-of-sri-lanka-from-harmony-to-persecution/
  9. ^ Siriweera (2004),p. 250
  10. ^ >Mendis (1999), p. 104
  11. ^ "The Consecrating of Pandukabhaya - King Pandukabhaya". 8 October 2011.
  12. ^ Perera (2001), p.45
  13. ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 20
  14. ^ a b Wijesooriya (2006), p. 27
  15. ^ Blaze (1995), p. 19
  16. ^ Yogasundaram (2008), p. 41
  17. ^ Bandaranayake (2007), p. 6
  18. ^ Mendis (1999), p. 7
  19. ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 28
  20. ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 25
  21. ^ Moratuwagama (1996), p. 225
  22. ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 27
  23. ^ Ludowyk (1985), p. 61
  24. ^ Moratuwagama (1996), p. 252
  25. ^ Moratuwagama (1996), p. 238
  26. ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 81
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