Anuradhapura Kingdom
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Kingdom of Anuradhapura | |||||||||
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437 BC–1017 AD | |||||||||
Historical era | Anuradhapura period | ||||||||
• Established | 437 BC | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1017 AD | ||||||||
|
Historical states of Sri Lanka | |
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1232–1620 | |
1521–1594 |
Anuradhapura Kingdom (
During the Anuradhapura era, the country was invaded by South Indians several times. Rulers such as
The kingdom was largely based on agriculture, hence the construction of irrigation works was a major achievement of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, ensuring water supply in the dry zone and helping the country grow mostly self-sufficient. Several kings, most notably
The city of Anuradhapura
According the chronicle
In 377 BC, King
History
According to the
Another notable king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom is
Arrival of Buddhism
One of the most notable events during the Anuradhapura Kingdom was the introduction of
Soon afterwards, the
Arrival of the Sacred Tooth Relic
During the reign of
Invasions
Several invasions have been made against the Anuradhapura Kingdom, all of which were launched from
The country was invaded again in 103 BC by
However, none of these invaders could extend their rule to
Fall of Anuradhapura
A partial consolidation of Chola power in
The Chola conquest had one permanent result in that the capital of Anuradhapura was destroyed by the Cholas.[51] Polonnaruwa, a military outpost of the Sinhalese kingdom,[56] was renamed Jananathamangalam, after a title assumed by Rajaraja I, and became the new centre of administration for the Cholas. This was because earlier Tamil invaders had only aimed at overlordship of Rajarata in the north, but the Cholas were bent on control of the whole island.[51] There is practically no trace of Chola rule in Anuradhapura. When Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabahu I, he crowned himself at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa for it being more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent province of Rohana much easier.[51]
Government and military
Monarch
The kingdom was under the rule of a king. The consecration ceremonies and rituals associated with kingship began during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa,
Four dynasties have ruled the kingdom from its founding to its ending. The rulers from Vijaya to
Officials
Royal officials were divided into three categories; officials attached to the palace, officials of central administration and officials of provincial administration. One of the most important positions was the purohita, the advisor of the king.[59] The king also had a board of ministers called amati paheja.[65] In central administration, senapati (Commander-in-Chief of the Army) was a second position only to the king and held by a member of the nobility.[66] This position, and also the positions of yuvaraja (sub king), administrative positions in the country's provinces and major ports and provinces, were often held by relatives of the king.[67]
The kingdom was often divided into sections or provinces and governed separately. Rajarata, the area around the capital, was under the direct administration of the king, while the Ruhuna (southern part of the country) and the Malaya Rata (hill country) were governed by officials called apa and mapa. These administrative units were further divided into smaller units called rata. Officials called ratiya or ratika were in charge of these.[N 4] The smallest administrative unit was the gama (village), under a village chief known as gamika or gamladda.[68]
Buddhist priesthood
A close link existed between the ruler and the Sangha (Buddhist priesthood) since the introduction of Buddhism to the country. This relationship was further strengthened during Dutthagamani's reign. The monks often advised and even guided the king on decisions. This association was initially with the Mahavihara sect, but by the middle of the 1st century BC, the Abhayagiri sect had also begun to have a close link to the ruling of the country. By the end of the 3rd century AD, the Jetavana sect had also become close to the ruler.[69] Estrangements between the ruler and the priesthood often weakened the government, as happened during the reign of Lanjatissa.[70] Even Valagamba's resistance movement was initially hampered because of a rift with the Mahavihara, and he succeeded only after a reconciliation was affected.[71] Some rulers patronized only one sect, but this often led to unrest in the country and most rulers equally supported all sects.[72] Despite this, religious establishments were often plundered during times of internal strife by the rulers themselves, such as during the reigns of Dathopatissa I (639–650) and Kashyapa II (650–659).[67]
Law
Customs, traditions and moral principles based on Buddhism were used as the bases of law. Specific laws were eventually developed and adopted. Samantapasadika, a 5th-century commentary, gives details of complex regulations on the theft of fish. The chief judicial officer was known as viniccayamacca and there were several judicial officers under him, known as vinicchayaka. Apart from them, village headmen and provincial governors were also given the power to issue judgments. The king was the final judge in legal disputes, and all cases against members of the royal family and high dignitaries of the state were judged by him. However, the king had to exercise this power with care and after consulting with his advisers.[73] Udaya I recorded judgments that were regarded as important precedents in the royal library in order to maintain uniformity in judicial decisions.[74]
Initially, the administration of justice at the village level was the responsibility of village assemblies, which usually consisted of the elders of the village.[75] However, towards the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom a group of ten villages, known as dasagam, was responsible for upholding justice in that area. The laws and legal measures to be followed by them were proclaimed by the king. Several rock inscriptions that record these proclamations have been found in archaeological excavations. Punishments differed from ruler to ruler. Some kings, such as Sanghabodhi (247–249) and Voharika Tissa (209–231) were lenient in this aspect, while rulers like Ilanaga (33–43) and Jettha Tissa I (263–273) were harsher. However, crimes such as treason, murder, and slaughter of cattle were generally punishable by death.[76]
Military
During the early stages, the Anuradhapura Kingdom did not have a strong regular army except for a small body of soldiers. These were assigned to guarding the capital and the royal palace. The King had the right to demand an able-bodied son for military service from every family in his kingdom. In times of war, a larger army was formed using this method. An army consisted of four main divisions; an elephant corps, cavalry, chariots and infantry.[77] This combination was called Chaturangani Sena (fourfold army). However, the majority of the army was infantry composed of swordsmen, spearmen and archers.[78][79]
When such an army was prepared, it was commanded by several generals. The
South Indian
Trade and economy
The economy of the Anuradhapura Kingdom was based mainly on
The primary goods exported during the Anuradhapura period are
The city of Anuradhapura itself became an important commercial centre as the residence of many foreign merchants from around the world. From very early times was a settlement of Greeks known as Yavanas. Professor Merlin Peris, former Professor of Classics at the University of Peradeniya, writes that “The Greeks whom King Pandukabhaya settled in the West Gate of Anuradhapura were not the second or third generation of Greeks who arrived in NW India but were men who, just two decades ago at the most, left Greek homelands as Alexander’s camp followers and come to Sri Lanka with or in the wake of Alexander’s troops. When their fellow Greeks showed reluctance to push further south, these Greeks apparently had done so.”[90]By the fifth century one of
Currency was often used for settling judicial fines,
The primary tax of this period was named bojakapati (grain tax) and charged for land used for cultivation.
Culture
Culture in the Anuradhapura Kingdom was largely based on Buddhism with the slaughter of animals for food considered low and unclean. As a result, animal husbandry, except for the rearing of
Metalwork was an important and well-developed craft, and metal tools such as axes, mammoties and hoes were widely used. Weapons and tools of iron and steel were produced on a large scale for the military.[110] A good indication of the development of metalwork of this period is the Lovamahapaya, which had been roofed entirely with copper.[111]
Villages were usually concentrated around irrigation reservoirs to enable easy access to water for agriculture. Houses stood immediately below the reservoir embankment, between the water and the paddy fields below. This facilitated easy control of the water supply to the fields and also supported the maintenance of domestic gardens for fruit and vegetable production.[112] A village typically consisted of a cluster of dwellings, paddy fields, a reservoir, a grazing ground, shift crop reserves and a village forest. In areas of high rainfall, a perennial watercourse often took the place of the reservoir.[75] Inland fishing was widespread during the Anuradhapura Kingdom period because of the numerous reservoirs.[113] Although not entirely absent, sea fishing was not common during this period mainly because of the rudimentary nature of transporting sea fish to cities which were located far inland.[114]
Women appear to have enjoyed considerable freedom and independence during this period.[115] Dutthagamani frequently sought his mother's advice during his military campaign.[116] Rock inscriptions show that women donated caves and temples for the use of the sangha. However, there are no records of women holding any administrative posts. It is not clear if women were given equal footing with men, but they did have complete freedom in religious matters.[117]
Religion
Before the adoption of Buddhism by the royalty, there was no single organized religion or proper state religion but a wide variety of different belief systems were practiced some of which received royal patronage.
Rulers sponsored
Followers of
A community of Christians are believed to have migrated and settled in the Kingdom likely introduced by Saint
Nestorian Christians held some influence and power in the Anuradhapura Kingdom, particularly during the reign of King Dathusena.
There was also a presence of Muslim Traders from Arabia and Persia.
Literature
From the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, inscriptions are recorded in the
Only three Sinhala books survive from the Anuradhapura period. One of them, Siyabaslakara, was written in the 9th or 10th century on the art of poetry and is based on the Sanskrit Kavyadarsha. Dampiya Atuva Gatapadaya is another, and is a glossary for the Pali Dhammapadatthakatha, providing Sinhala words and synonyms for Pali words. The third book is Mula Sikha Ha Sikhavalanda, a set of disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks. Both these have been written during the last two centuries of the Anuradhapura period.[133]
During the reign of Valagamba, the Pali
Art
The Sigiriya Frescoes found at Sigiriya, Sri Lanka were painted during the reign of King Kashyapa I (ruled 477 — 495 AD). Depicting female figures carrying flowers, they are the oldest surviving paintings of the Anuradhapura period.[137] Various theories exist as to who are shown in these paintings. Some suggest that they are apsaras (celestial nymphs),[138] others suggest that they are the ladies of the king's court or even a representation of lightning and rain clouds.[139] Although they bear some similarity to the paintings of Ajanta in India, there are significant differences in style and composition suggesting that these are examples of a distinctive Sri Lankan school of art.[140]
Paintings from a cave at Hindagala date back to the late Anuradhapura period, and may even belong to the same period as the Sigiriya paintings. The paintings of Sigiriya and Hindagala are the only surviving specimens of the art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. However, remnants of paintings indicate that the walls and ceilings of some buildings and the inside walls of stupas and vahalkadas were also painted.[137] Saddhatissa had employed painters to decorate the Ruwanweli Seya when his brother Duttugemunu wanted to see it on his death bed.[141]
Statue making, most noticeably
The carvings at Isurumuniya are some of the best examples of the stone carving art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. Skill in arts was a respected and valued trait during this period and artists were well rewarded by the rulers. The Mahavamsa records that Jettha Tissa II (328–337) was himself skilled in stone and ivory carving.[145]
Architecture and engineering
Architecture
The construction of
The Anuradhapura dagabas which date from the early centuries of the Anuradhapura period, are of such colossal proportions that they constitute the largest structures of their type anywhere in the Buddhist World, even rivalling the Pyramids of Egypt in size.[147]
The
All buildings have been adorned with elaborate carvings and sculptures and were supported by large stone columns. These stone columns can be seen in several buildings such as the
Irrigation and water management
Construction of large scale reservoirs began in the 1st century AD under the direction of
... there seems every reason to believe that from their own subsequent experience and the prodigious extent to which they occupied themselves in the formulation of works of this kind, they attained a facility unsurpassed by the people of any other country.[156]
The water resources of the dry zone were further exploited during the times of Upatissa I and
Technology
Advanced technology was required for the planning and construction of large reservoirs and canals. When constructing reservoirs, the gaps between low
The 54 miles (87 km) long Jayaganga has a gradient of six inches to the mile, which indicates that the builders had expert knowledge and accurate measuring devices to achieve the minimum gradient in the water flow. The construction of Bisokotuva, a cistern sluice used to control the outward flow of water in reservoirs, indicates a major advancement in irrigation technology. Since the 3rd century, these sluices, made of brick and stone, were placed at various levels in the embankments of reservoirs.[161][162]
See also
Notes
- ^ This flag was known as the only ancient representation of the lion flag of the Sinhalese but in 1957, the lion figure on it was defaced by a vandal.[2]
- three gems".
- ^ This is also known as the Anuradhapura dynasty, starting from Pandukabhaya.
- ^ This position was called rataladda by the later period of the Anuradhapura Kingdom.
- ^ This is disputed by some historians however since there is no mention of this in the Mahavamsa although the Rajavaliya describes the event in detail.
- ^ According to Samantapasadika, the use of coins in transactions involving the purchasing of items had become common by the 5th century.
- Dipavamsa and Rajavaliya.
- Ceylonfrom 1845 to 1850. He has written several books on the country and its history.
References
Citations
- ^ Seneviratna, Anuradha (1983). Golden Rock Temple of Dambulla: Caves of infinite Buddhas. Central Cultural Fund. p. 9.
- ^ Godakumbura, C.E. (1969). History of archaeology in Ceylon. Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, New Series (Vol XIII). p. 36.
We all agree with Deraniyagala when he considers that the defacing of the lion depicted upon Dutugemunu's flag in the famous Dambulla frescoes as a national loss. This, so far as we know, is the only ancient representation of the lion-flag of the Sinhalese.
- ISBN 9558095923.
- ^ a b De Silva 2014, p. 58.
- ^ "The downfall of the Anuradhapura kingdom and South Indian influences" (PDF). Retrieved 3 January 2018.
- ^ https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-sri-lanka/
- ^ https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-sri-lanka/
- ^ https://5pillarsuk.com/2021/03/21/the-muslims-of-sri-lanka-from-harmony-to-persecution/
- ^ Siriweera (2004),p. 250
- ^ >Mendis (1999), p. 104
- ^ "The Consecrating of Pandukabhaya - King Pandukabhaya". 8 October 2011.
- ^ Perera (2001), p.45
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 20
- ^ a b Wijesooriya (2006), p. 27
- ^ Blaze (1995), p. 19
- ^ Yogasundaram (2008), p. 41
- ^ Bandaranayake (2007), p. 6
- ^ Mendis (1999), p. 7
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 28
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 25
- ^ Moratuwagama (1996), p. 225
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 27
- ^ Ludowyk (1985), p. 61
- ^ Moratuwagama (1996), p. 252
- ^ Moratuwagama (1996), p. 238
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 81
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 88
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 93
- ^ a b Siriweera (2004), p. 171
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 75
- ^ a b Siriweera (2004), p. 35
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 36
- ^ a b Wijesooriya (2006), p. 114
- ^ Mendis (1999), p. 11
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 34
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 38
- ^ Ludowyk (1985), p. 46
- ^ Ludowyk (1985), p. 49
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 41
- ^ Ludowyk (1985), p. 55
- ^ Blaze (1995), p. 58
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 89
- ^ Blaze (1995), p. 59
- ^ Rambukwelle (1993), p. 51
- ^ a b Wijesooriya (2006), p. 47
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 49
- ^ a b Siriweera (2004), p. 42
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 108
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 112
- ^ a b Siriweera (2004), p. 44
- ^ a b c d e Sastri 2000, p. 172–173.
- ^ Spencer 1976, p. 411.
- ^ a b Spencer 1976, p. 416.
- ^ a b c Sastri 2000, p. 199–200.
- ^ Spencer 1976, p. 417.
- ^ as noted by its native name of Kandavura Nuvara (the camp city)
- ^ a b Siriweera (2004), p. 86
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 30
- ^ a b Siriweera (2004), p. 87
- ^ Perera (2001), p. 48
- ^ Nicholas and Paranavitana (1961), p. 54
- ^ Nicholas and Paranavitana (1961), p. 77
- ^ Nicholas and Paranavitana (1961), p. 123
- ^ Nicholas and Paranavitana (1961), p. 143
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 90
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 88
- ^ a b c Siriweera (1994), p. 8
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 91
- ^ Siriweera (1994), p. 6
- ^ Rambukwelle (1993), p. 45
- ^ Rambukwelle (1993), p. 46
- ^ Siriweera (1994), p. 7
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 92
- ^ Mendis (1999), p. 144
- ^ a b Rambukwelle (1993), p. 38
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 93
- ^ a b c d e Yogasundaram (2008), p. 66
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 89
- ^ Ellawala (1969), p.148
- ^ a b Yogasundaram (2008), p. 67
- ^ Wijesooriya (2006), p. 110
- ^ Mendis (1999), p. 57
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 183
- ^ Goonaratne and Hirashima (1990), p. 153
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 190
- ^ a b Siriweera (2004), p. 182
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 192
- ^ Seneviratna (1989), p. 54
- ^ Siriweera (1994), p. 114
- ^ Did Anuradhapura Greeks come east with Alexander?
- ^ De Silva 2014, p. 46.
- ^ De Silva 2014, p. 47.
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 207
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 212
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 218
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 228
- ^ Siriweera (1994), p 120
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 213
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 214
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 215
- ^ Codrington (1994), p. 19
- ^ Siriweera (1994), p. 167
- ^ Siriweera (1994), p. 168
- ^ Siriweera (1994), p. 169
- ^ Siriweera (1994), p. 170
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 200
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 193
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 194
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 195
- ^ Ellawala (1969), p. 151
- ^ Ellawala (1969), p. 152
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 187
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 201
- ^ Siriweera (1994), p. 39
- ^ Ellawala (1969), p. 82
- ^ Wettimuny, Samangie (17 August 2008). "Unsurpassed heroism: Women in Mahavamsa". Sunday Observer. Archived from the original on 3 August 2009. Retrieved 17 July 2009.
- ^ Ellawala (1969), p. 83
- ^ ISSN 2454-6186.
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 244
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 245
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 248
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 246
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 247
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 250
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 254
- ^ Mendis (1999), p. 104
- ^ "A Brief History of Christianity in Sri Lanka". 20 September 2013.
- ^ "Did Christianity exist in ancient Sri Lanka?".
- ^ Ellawala (1969), p. 87
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 267
- ^ Lokubandara (2007), p. 37
- ^ Lokubandara (2007), p. 29
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 268
- ^ Ellawala (1969), p. 86
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 271
- ^ Mendis (1999), p. 1
- ^ a b Siriweera (2004), p. 290
- ^ Bandaranayake (2007), p. 8
- ^ Bandaranayake (2007), p. 11
- ^ Bandaranayake (2007), p. 12
- ^ Ellawala (1969), p. 153
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 286
- ^ "Sacred city of Anuradhapura". The Sunday Times. 9 December 2007. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 287
- ^ Fernando (2001), p. 3
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 283
- ^ "Periodic Reporting Exercise on the Application of the World Heritage Convention" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 18 July 2009.
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 284
- ^ Basnayake (1986), p. 109
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 280
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 281
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 168
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 169
- ^ Mendis (1999), p. 74
- ^ a b Siriweera (2004), p. 170
- ^ Mendis (2000), p. 248
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 174
- ^ Seneviratna (1989), p. 89
- ^ "The beautiful twin ponds of Anuradhapura". Sunday Observer. 2 November 2008. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
- ^ Bandaranayake (2007), p. 15
- ^ Siriweera (2004), p. 175
- ^ Seneviratna (1989), p. 76
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