Apennine Mountains
Apennine Mountains | |
---|---|
Highest point | |
Peak | Corno Grande (Great Horn) |
Elevation | 2,912 m (9,554 ft)[1] |
Listing | List of mountain ranges |
Coordinates | 42°28′9″N 13°33′57″E / 42.46917°N 13.56583°E |
Dimensions | |
Length | 1,200 km (750 mi) northwest to southeast |
Width | 250 km (160 mi) southwest to northeast |
Naming | |
Native name | Monti Appennini (Italian) |
Geography | |
Countries | Italy and San Marino |
Range coordinates | 43°16.9′N 12°34.9′E / 43.2817°N 12.5817°E |
Geology | |
Age of rock | Mesozoic for formation of rock, Neogene-Quaternary for orogeny |
Type of rock | Apennine fold and thrust belt |
The Apennines
The Apennines conserve some intact ecosystems that have survived human intervention. In these are some of the best preserved forests and montane grasslands in Europe, now protected by national parks and, within them, a high diversity of flora and fauna. These mountains are one of the last refuges of the big European predators such as the Italian wolf and the Marsican brown bear, now extinct in the rest of Central Europe.
The mountains lend their name to the
Etymology
The etymology most frequently repeated, because of its semantic appropriateness, is that it derives from the
A large number of place names seem to reflect pen: Penarrig, Penbrynn, Pencoid, Penmon, Pentir, etc. or ben: Beanach, Benmore, Benabuird, Benan, Bencruachan, etc. inconsistently with the theory of the northern origin. None of these derivations are unquestionably accepted.
History
The Apennine culture is a technology complex in central and southern Italy from the Italian Middle Bronze Age (15th–14th centuries BC).[13] In the mid-20th century the Apennine was divided into Proto-, Early, Middle and Late sub- phases[13], but now archaeologists prefer to consider as "Apennine" only the ornamental pottery style of the later phase of Middle Bronze Age (BM3).
This phase is preceded by the Grotta Nuova facies (central Italy) and by the Protoapennine B facies (southern Italy) and succeeded by the Subapennine facies of 13th-century ("Bronzo Recente"). Apennine pottery is a burnished ware incised with spirals, meanders and geometrical zones, filled with dots or transverse dashes. It has been found on
The people of the Apennine culture were alpine cattle herdsmen grazing their animals over the meadows and groves of mountainous central Italy. They lived in small hamlets located in defensible places. On the move between summer pastures they built temporary camps or lived in caves and rock shelters.
Geography
The Apennines are divided into three sectors: northern (Appennino settentrionale), central (Appennino centrale), and southern (Appennino meridionale).[15]
A number of long hiking trails wind through the Apennines. Of note is
Northern Apennines
The northern Apennines consist of three subchains: the Ligurian (Appennino ligure), Tuscan-Emilian (Appennino tosco-emiliano), and Umbrian Apennines (Appennino umbro).[16]
Ligurian Apennines
The Ligurian Apennines border the Ligurian Sea in the Gulf of Genoa, from about Savona below the upper Bormida River valley to about La Spezia (La Cisa pass) below the upper Magra River valley. The range follows the Gulf of Genoa separating it from the upper Po Valley. The northwestern border follows the line of the Bormida River to Acqui Terme. There the river continues northeast to Alessandria in the Po Valley, but the mountains bend away to the southeast.
The upper Bormida can be reached by a number of roads proceeding inland at a right angle to the coast southwest of Savona, the chief one being the Autostrada Torino-Savona. They ascend to the Bocchetta di Altare, sometimes called Colle di Cadibona, 436 m (1,430 ft), the border between the Ligurian Alps along the coast to the west and the Ligurian Apennines. A bronze plaque fixed to a stone marks the top of the pass. In the vicinity are fragments of the old road and three ruins of former fortifications.
At
The main and only feasible overland route connecting the coastal plain of Liguria to the north Italian plain runs through Bocchetta di Altare. It has always been of strategic importance. Defenders of north Italy have had to control it since ancient times, as the various fortifications placed there testify. Trenitalia, the state railway system, highly developed on the coastal plain, now traverses the mountains routinely through a number of railway tunnels, such as the one at Giovi Pass.
The southeastern border of the Ligurian Apennines is the Fiume Magra, which projects into the Tyrrhenian Sea south of La Spezia, and the Fiume Taro, which runs in the opposite direction to join the Po. The divide between the two upper river valleys is the Cisa Pass. Under it (in two tunnels) runs the Autostrada della Cisa between Spezia and Parma.
Tuscan–Emilian Apennines
Starting at
A separate branch, the
As the Tuscan Apennines divide the peninsula between the Po Valley and the plains and hills of Tuscany and Lazio, transportation over them has been used to achieve political and economic unity. Historically the Romans used the Via Flaminia between Rome and Rimini. The montane distance between Florence in Tuscany and Bologna in Emilia-Romagna is shorter, but exploitation of it required the conquest of more rugged terrain, which was not feasible for the ancients. Railway lines were constructed over the mountains in the early 19th century but they were of low capacity and unimprovable.
Since 1856, a series of tunnels have been constructed to conduct "the Bologna-Florence rail line", which is neither a single line nor a single tunnel. The Porrettana Line went into service in 1864, the Direttissima in 1934 and the High Speed in 1996.[17] A few dozen tunnels support the three of them, the longest on the High-Speed Line being the Voglia Tunnel at 16.757 km (10.412 mi).[18] The longest is on the Direttissima, the Great Apennine Tunnel, which at 18.5 kilometres (11.5 miles) is the longest entirely within Italy, although the Simplon Tunnel, which connects Italy and Switzerland, is longer.[note 2] Automobile traffic is carried by the Autostrada del Sole, Route A1, which goes through numerous shorter tunnels, bypassing an old road, originally Roman, through Futa Pass. In December 2015, a new Route A1 called Variante di Valico was opened after many years of construction consisting of major tunnels (the longest being the new 8.6-kilometre (5.3-mile) 'Tunel Base') and new overpasses, shortening the traveling time between Florence and Bologna by road. The Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park is in the southern part of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines. The southern limit of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines is the Bocca Serriola Pass in northern Umbria, which links Fano and Città di Castello.
The
Central Apennines
The Apennine System forms an irregular arc with centers of curvature located in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The northern and southern segments comprise parallel chains that can be viewed as single overall mountain ridges, such as the Ligurian Mountains. The center, being thicker and more complex, is geologically divided into an inner and an outer arc with regard to the centers of curvature. The geologic definition, however, is not the same as the geographic.
Based on rock type and orogenic incidents, the northern segment of the arc is divided into the Outer Northern Apennines (ONA) and the Inner Northern Apennines (INA).[19] The Central Apennines are divided into the Umbrian–Marchean (Appennino umbro-marchigiano) or Roman Apennines in the north and the Abruzzi Apennines (Appennino abruzzese) in the south. It extends from Bocca Serriola pass in the north to Forlì pass in the south.[16]
Umbria-Marche Apennines
The west border of the Umbria-Marche Apennines (or Appennino umbro-marchigiano)) runs through Cagli. They extend south to the Tronto River, the south border of the ONA. The highest peak,
Abruzzi Apennines
The Abruzzi Apennines, located in
The eastern chain consists mainly of the southern part of the
Other features between the western and central ranges are the plain of
The central Apennines are crossed by the railway from
Southern Apennines
Samnite and Campanian Apennines
In the southern Apennines, to the south of the Sangro valley, the three parallel chains are broken up into smaller groups; among them may be named the Matese, the highest point of which is the Monte Miletto 2,050 metres (6,725 ft). The chief rivers on the south-west are the Liri or Garigliano with its tributary the Sacco, the Volturno, Sebeto, Sarno, on the north the Trigno, Biferno and Fortore.[21]
Lucan Apennines
The valley of the Ofanto, which runs into the Adriatic close to Barletta, marks the northern termination of the first range of the Lucanian Apennines (now Basilicata), which runs from east to west, while south of the valleys of the Sele (on the west) and Basento (on the east)—which form the line followed by the railway from Battipaglia via Potenza to Metaponto—the second range begins to run due north and south as far as the plain of Sibari. The highest point is the Monte Pollino 2,233 metres (7,325 ft). The chief rivers are the Sele—joined by the Negro and Calore—on the west, and the Bradano, Basento, Agri, Sinni on the east, which flow into the gulf of Taranto; to the south of the last-named river there are only unimportant streams flowing into the sea east and west, inasmuch as here the width of the peninsula diminishes to some 64 kilometres (40 mi).[21]
Calabrian and Sicilian Apennines
The railway running south from Sicignano to Lagonegro, ascending the valley of the Negro, is planned to extend to Cosenza, along the line followed by the ancient Via Popilia, which beyond Cosenza reached the west coast at Terina and thence followed it to Reggio. The Via Herculia , a branch of the Via Traiana, ran from Aequum Tuticum to the ancient Nerulum. At the narrowest point the plain of Sibari, through which the rivers Coscile and Crati flow to the sea, occurs on the east coast, extending halfway across the peninsula. Here the limestone Apennines proper cease and the granite mountains of Calabria begin.[21]
The first group extends as far as the
Environment
Vegetative zones
Ecoregions
- north and central: Apennine deciduous montane forests (temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome)
- north through south: Italian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous forests (Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome)
- south: South Apennine mixed montane forests (also a Mediterranean biome)
The number of vascular plant species in the Apennines has been estimated at 5,599. Of these, 728 (23.6%) are in the treeline ecotone. Hemicryptophytes predominate in the entire Apennine chain.[22]
Alpine zone
The tree line ecotone is mainly grasslands of the Montane grasslands and shrublands biome; with Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, and Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub below it. The tree line in the Apennines can be found in the range 1,600 m (5,200 ft) to 2,000 m (6,600 ft).[23] About 5% of the map area covered by the Apennines is at or above the tree line—or in the treeline ecotone. The snow line is at about 3,200 m (10,500 ft), leaving the Apennines below it, except for the one remaining glacier. Snow may fall from October to May. Rainfall increases with latitude.[7] The range's climates, depending on elevation and latitude, are the Oceanic climate and Mediterranean climate.
Fauna
The mammal fauna
There are also numerous birds[25] such as the golden eagle, the Bonelli's eagle, the Eurasian goshawk, the hoopoe, the hawk, the European roller, the White-backed woodpecker, the European green woodpecker, the Alpine chough, the Egyptian vulture, the European nightjar, the Italian sparrow (endemic) and the Eurasian eagle-owl
There are also numerous amphibians
The reptile[27] fauna is mainly composed of suc as the Italian Aesculapian snake (endemic), the Dice snake, the Green whip snake, the Aesculapian snake, the Smooth snake, the Vipera ursinii, the Vipera aspis, the Italian wall lizard (endemic), the Podarcis muralis, the European green lizard.
Notable Apennine freshwater fishes are the
The
Transhumance
In Italy the transhumance took place mainly starting from the Abruzzi Apennines, moving both towards the Tuscan and Lazio Maremma and above all towards the Tavoliere delle Puglie.[32] The Apennines are to some extent covered with forests, though these were probably more extensive in classical times (Pliny mentions especially pine, oak and beech woods, Hist. Nat. xvi. 177); they have indeed been greatly reduced in comparatively modern times by indiscriminate timber-felling, and though serious attempts at reforestation have been made by the government, much remains to be done.[21]
They also furnish considerable summer pastures, especially in the
Brigandage appears to have been prevalent in Roman times in the more remote parts of the Apennines, as it was until recently. An inscription found near the Furlo pass was set up in AD 246 by an evocatus Augusti (a member of a picked corps) on special police duty with a detachment of twenty men from the Ravenna fleet. [21]
Snow lies on the highest peaks of the Apennines for almost the whole year. The range produces no minerals, but there are a considerable number of good
National parks
The Apennines are home to twelve
Hydrography
Important rivers originate from the Apennines are the Panaro, the Secchia, the Reno, the Marecchia, the Rubicon, the Metauro, the Arno, the Tiber, the Savio, the Nera, the Velino, the Tronto, the Aterno-Pescara, the Aniene, the Liri, the Sangro and the Volturno. Among the lakes of glacial origin of the Alpine type is Lago di Pilato.
Geology
The Apennines were created in the Apennine
The northward movement of the African Plate and its collision with the European Plate then caused the
The key evidence of the difference is the geologic behavior of the
Apennine orogeny
The Apennine orogeny is a type of mountain-building in which two simpler types are combined in an apparently paradoxical configuration. Sometimes this is referred to as "syn-orogenic extension", but the term implies that the two processes occur simultaneously during time. Some scientists imagine that this is relatively rare but not unique in mountain building, whereas others imagine that this is fairly common in all mountain belts.
The RETREAT Project[note 3] have this specific feature as one of their focus points[35] In essence the east side of Italy features a
"The paradox of how contraction and extension can occur simultaneously in convergent mountain belts remains a fundamental and largely unresolved problem in continental dynamics."
Both the folded and the fault-block systems include parallel mountain chains. In the folded system anticlines erode into the highest and longest massifs of the Apennines.
According to the older theories (originating from the 1930s to 1970s) of Dutch geologists, including Van Bemmelen, compression and extension can and should occur simultaneously at different depths in a mountain belt. In these theories, these different levels are called Stockwerke. More recent work in geotectonics and geodynamics of the same school of geoscientists (Utrecht and Amsterdam University) by Vlaar, Wortel, and Cloetingh, and their disciples, extended these concepts even further into a temporal realm. They demonstrated that internal and external forces acting upon the mountain belt (e.g., slab pull and intra-plate stress field modulations due to large scale reorganisations of the tectonic plates) result in both longer episodes and shorter phases of general extension and compression acting both upon and inside mountain belts and tectonic arches (See e.g. for extensive reviews, bibliography and discussions on the literature: Van Dijk (1992),[36] Van Dijk and Okkes (1991),[37] Van Dijk & Scheepers (1995),[38] and Van Dijk et al. (2000a)[39]).
Compressional zone
The gradual subsidence of the Po Valley (including that of Venice) and the folding of the mountains of eastern Italy have been investigated using seismic wave analysis of the "Apennine Subduction System."[35] Along the Adriatic side of Italy the floor of the Adriatic Sea, referred to as the "Adriatic lithosphere" or the "Adriatic plate," terms whose precise meaning is the subject of ongoing research, is dipping under the slab on which the Apennines have been folded by compressional forces.
Subduction occurs along a fault, along which a hanging wall, or overriding slab is thrust over an overridden slab, also called the subducting slab. In north Italy the dip of this interface is 30° to 40° at a depth of 80–90 km.[40]
The
Extensional zone
The west side of Italy is given to a
Stability of terrain
The terrain of the Apennines (as well as that of the Alps) is to a large degree unstable due to various types of landslides, including falls and slides of rocks and debris, flows of earth and mud, and sink holes. The Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale), a government agency founded in 2008 by combining three older agencies, published in that year a special report, Landslides in Italy, summarizing the results of the IFFI Project (Il Progetto IFFI), the Italian Landslide Inventory (Inventario dei Fenomeni Franosi in Italia), an extensive survey of historical landslides in Italy undertaken by the government starting in 1997. On December 31, 2007, it had studied and mapped 482,272 landslides over 20,500 km2 (7,900 sq mi). Its major statistics are the Landslide Index (LI here), the ratio of the landslide area to the total area of a region, the Landslide Index in Mountainous-Hilly Areas (here LIMH) and the Density of Landslides, which is the number per 100 km2 (39 sq mi).
Italy as a whole has a LI of 6.8, a LIMH of 9.1 and a density of 160.
Glacial ice
Glaciers no longer exist in the Apennines outside the
Major peaks
The Apennines include about 21 peaks over 1,900 m (6,200 ft), the approximate tree line (counting only the top peak in each massif). Most of these peaks are located in the Central Apennines.[23]
Name | Height |
---|---|
Corno Grande (Gran Sasso massif) |
2,912 m (9,554 ft) |
Majella massif ) |
2,793 m (9,163 ft) |
Monte Velino | 2,486 m (8,156 ft) |
Monte Vettore | 2,476 m (8,123 ft) |
Pizzo di Sevo | 2,419 m (7,936 ft) |
Serra Dolcedorme (Pollino massif) |
2,267 m (7,438 ft) |
Monte Meta | 2,241 m (7,352 ft) |
Monte Terminillo | 2,217 m (7,274 ft) |
Monte Sibilla | 2,173 m (7,129 ft) |
Monte Cimone | 2,165 m (7,103 ft) |
Monte Viglio | 2,156 m (7,073 ft) |
Monte Cusna | 2,121 m (6,959 ft) |
Montagne del Morrone | 2,061 m (6,762 ft) |
Monte Prado | 2,053 m (6,736 ft) |
Monte Miletto (Matese massif) |
2,050 m (6,730 ft) |
Alpe di Succiso | 2,017 m (6,617 ft) |
Monte Cotento ( Simbruini range ) |
2,015 m (6,611 ft) |
Monte Sirino | 2,005 m (6,578 ft) |
Montalto (Aspromonte massif) |
1,955 m (6,414 ft) |
Monte Pisanino | 1,946 m (6,385 ft) |
Monte Botte Donato (Sila plateau) |
1,928 m (6,325 ft) |
Corno alle Scale | 1,915 m (6,283 ft) |
Monte Alto | 1,904 m (6,247 ft) |
Monte Alpi | 1,900 m (6,200 ft) |
Monte Cervati | 1,898 m (6,227 ft) |
La Nuda | 1,894 m (6,214 ft) |
Monte Maggio | 1,853 m (6,079 ft) |
Monte Maggiorasca | 1,799 m (5,902 ft) |
Monte Giovarello | 1,760 m (5,770 ft) |
Monte Catria | 1,701 m (5,581 ft) |
Monte Gottero | 1,640 m (5,380 ft) |
Monte Pennino | 1,560 m (5,120 ft) |
Monte Nerone | 1,525 m (5,003 ft) |
Monte San Vicino | 1,480 m (4,856 ft) |
Monte Fumaiolo | 1,407 m (4,616 ft) |
See also
- Alps
- Geography of Italy
- List of national parks of Italy
- List of longest tunnels
- List of highest paved roads in Europe
- List of mountain passes
- Lunar Apennine mountains
Notes
- ^ Apenninus (Greek Ἀπέννινος or Ἀπέννινα) has the form of an adjective, which would be segmented Apenn-inus, often used with nouns such as mons ("mountain") or Greek ὄρος (óros), but Apenninus is just as often used alone as a noun. The ancient Greeks and Romans typically but not always used "mountain" in the singular to mean one or a range; thus, "the Apennine mountain" refers to the entire chain and is translated "the Apennine mountains". The ending can vary also by gender depending on the noun modified. The Italian singular refers to one of the constituent chains rather than to a single mountain, and the Italian plural refers to multiple chains rather than to multiple mountains.
- ^ Claims of being the longest or second-longest in the world have been soon outdated. See List of longest tunnels.
- ^ The Retreating-trench, extension and accretion (RETREAT) Project is a study conducted by a consortium of scientific organizations in different countries including in the US the National Science Foundation.
References
- ^ "Topographic map of Corno Grande". opentopomap.org. Retrieved 2023-06-11.
- Merriam-Webster Dictionary, on-line on www.merriam-webster.com.
- ^ Strabo, Geography, book 5.
- ^ a b Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879). "Apenninus". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford; Medford: Clarendon Press; Perseus Digital Library.
- ^ Gambino, Roberto; Romano, Bernardino (2000–2001). Territorial strategies and environmental continuity in mountain systems: The case of the Apennines (Italy) (PDF). World Commission on Protected Areas.
- ^ a b Lake 1911, p. 161.
- ^ a b Pedrotti & Gafta 2003, p. 75
- ^ Deecke 1904, p. 23
- ^ Blackie & Blackie 1887, pp. 21, 154
- ^ "ceann". MacBain's Dictionary.
- ^ "pin". Webster's Third New International Dictionary.
- ^ "*pet-". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Indo-European Roots.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-416-70650-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-08691-2.
- ^ Martini & Vai 2001, p. 3.
- ^ a b c d e Merriam-Webster 2001, p. 59.
- ^ Lunardi 2008, pp. 413–414.
- ^ Lunardi 2008, pp. 425–437.
- ^ Barchi et al. 2001, p. 216.
- ^ "Parks, Reserves and other Protected Areas in the Marches". Parks.it. 1995–2010. Retrieved 15 March 2010.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Lake 1911, p. 162.
- ^ Pedrotti & Gafta 2003, p. 79.
- ^ a b Pedrotti & Gafta 2003, p. 73.
- ^ "Mammiferi d'Italia - Ministero della Transizione Ecologica" (PDF) (in Italian). p. 7. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
- ^ "Appennini - Uccelli" (in Italian). Retrieved 11 March 2022.
- ^ "Quali sono gli anfibi autoctoni?" (in Italian). Retrieved 11 March 2022.
- ^ Peter Uetz; Jakob Hallermann; Jiri Hosek. "Distribution: italy". The Reptile Database. Retrieved 22 June 2021.
- ^ Sheri Foster (January 2021). "What is Italy national animal?". Yourtrip.com.
- ^ James Hansen (June 2018). "Il lupo grigio degli appennini e l animale dell Italia".
- ^ "Italian House Sparrow". EBN Italia. 1 May 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
- ^ Livy (1797). The history of Rome. George Baker (trans.). Printed for A. Strahan.
- ^ "Tratturi" (in Italian). Retrieved 13 October 2023.
- ^
James, Kristen (2004), Determining the source for the magmas of Monte Amiata (Central Italy) using strontium, neodymium, and lead isotopes, Carleton Geology Department: Geology Comps Papers, pp. 3–4, above sea level during a doming phase during the Middle Pliocene.
- ^ Ollier, Cliff; Pain, Colin (2000). The origin of mountains. London: Routledge. p. 77.
Apennine thrusts move in from the south, and Southern Alps thrust in from the north, but instead of collisional compression there is subsidence and horizontal sedimentation.
- ^ a b Margheriti 2006, p. 1120.
- ^ van Dijk, J.P. (1992). "Late Neogene fore-arc basin evolution in the Calabrian Arc (Central Mediterranean). Tectonic sequence stratigraphy and dynamic geohistory. With special reference to the geology of Central Calabria". Geologica Ultraiectina. 92: 288.
- .
- S2CID 128811666.
- ^
van Dijk, J.P.; Bello, M.; Brancaleoni, G.P.; Cantarella, G.; Costa, V.; Frixa, A.; Golfetto, F.; Merlini, S.; Riva, M.; Toricelli, S.; Toscano, C.; Zerilli, A. (2000). "A new structural model for the northern sector of the Calabrian Arc". Tectonophysics. 324 (4): 267–320. S2CID 130289171.
- ^ a b Margheriti 2006, p. 1124.
- ^ Trigila, Alessandro; Iadanza, Carla (2008). "Landslides in Italy: Special Report 2008" (PDF). Rome: Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale (ISPRA). pp. 15–16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-17.
Bibliography
- "Apennines". Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. 2001.
- Blackie, Christina; Blackie, John Stuart (1887). Geographical etymology, a dictionary of place-names giving their derivations. London: Murray.
- Deecke, W (1904). Italy; a popular account of the country, its people, and its institutions (including Malta and Sardinia). Translated by Nesbitt, H A. London; New York: Macmillan Co.; S. Sonnenschein & Co.
- Lunardi, Pietro (2008). Design and construction of tunnels: analysis of controlled deformation in rocks and soils (ADECO-RS). Berlin: Springer.
- Margheriti, Lucia; et al. (August–October 2006). "The subduction structure of the Northern Apennines: results for the RETREAT seismic deployment" (PDF). Annals of Geophysics. 49 (4/5). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-19.
- Martini, I. Peter; Vai, Gian Battista (2001). "Geomorphologic Setting". In Martini, I. Peter; Vai, Gian Battista (eds.). Anatomy of an orogen: the Apennines and adjacent Mediterranean basins. Dordrecht [u.a.]: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 1–4..
- Barchi, Massimiliano; Landuzzi, Alberto; Minelli, Giorgio; Pialli, Giampaolo (2001). "Inner Northern Apennines". In Martini, I. Peter; Vai, Gian Battista (eds.). Anatomy of an orogen: the Apennines and adjacent Mediterranean basins. Dordrecht [u.a.]: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 215–254..
- Pedrotti, F.; Gafta, D. (2003). "The High Mountain Flora and Vegetation of the Apennines and the Italian Alps". In Nagy, László; Grabherr, G.; Körner, Ch.; Thompson, D.B.A. (eds.). Alpine biodiversity in Europe. Ecological studies, 167. Berlin, Heidelberg [u.a.]: Springer-Verlag. pp. 73–84..
- Attribution
- public domain: Lake, Philip (1911). "Apennines". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 161–163. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
External links
- "Ligurian Apennine". Summit Post. 2006. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
- "Italian Cultural Landscapes: wood-pasture and wood-meadow in the Ligurian-Tuscan-Aemilian Apennines, Italy". The ECL project. Archived from the original on 17 September 2007. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
- "Appenine [sic] deciduous montane forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
- Irlam, Michael J. (2009). "The Great Apennine Tunnel". Mike's Railway History. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
- "10th Mountain Division – The Formative World War II Years". Dartmouth College Class of 1965. 2008. Retrieved 16 February 2010.