Christianity in the 1st century
Christianity in the 1st century covers the formative
Etymology
Early
Origins
Jewish–Hellenistic background
The earliest Christians were an
The basic tenets of Jewish religion were ethical monotheism, the Torah (or Law), and an eschatology that looked forward to a future messianic age.[22] Jews believed the Law was given by God to guide them in their worship of the Lord and in their interactions with each other. A central concern in 1st century Judaism was the covenant with God, and the status of the Jews as the chosen people of God. Many Jews believed that this covenant would be renewed with the coming of the messiah.[23]
Messiah (
In the
Life and ministry of Jesus
canonical gospels |
Portals: Christianity Bible |
Sources
Christian sources, such as the four
Non-Christian sources that are used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include Jewish sources such as Josephus, and Roman sources such as Tacitus. These sources are compared to Christian sources such as the Pauline epistles and the Synoptic Gospels. These sources are usually independent of each other (e.g. Jewish sources do not draw upon Roman sources), and similarities and differences between them are used in the authentication process.[30][31]
Historical person
Biblical scholar Graham Stanton notes that "nearly all historians, whether Christian or not, accept that Jesus existed", and more is known about him than any other 1st or 2nd-century religious teacher with the exception of Paul.[32] The two events of Jesus' life subject to "almost universal assent" are that Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist and was crucified by the order of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect.[33][34][35] Biblical scholar Amy-Jill Levine summarizes the scholarly consensus on Jesus' life as follows:[36]
Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (26–36 CE). But, to use the old cliché, the devil is in the details.
There is widespread disagreement among scholars on the details of the life of Jesus mentioned in the gospel narratives, and on the meaning of his teachings.[29] The gospels are "filled with nonhistorical material, accounts of events that could not have happened", and contradictory accounts of the same events.[37] As historical sources, the gospels have to be "weighed and assessed critically".[32] Scholars often draw a distinction between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith, and two different accounts can be found in this regard.[38]
Academic scholars have constructed a variety of portraits and profiles for Jesus.[39][40][41] Contemporary scholarship places Jesus firmly in the Jewish tradition,[42] and the most prominent understanding of Jesus is as a Jewish apocalyptic prophet or eschatological teacher.[43][note 2] Other portraits are the charismatic healer,[note 3] the Cynic philosopher, the Jewish Messiah, and the prophet of social change.[39][40][note 4]
Ministry and eschatological expectations
In the
In the
In the Gospel of John, Jesus himself is the main subject.[web 9]The Synoptics present different views on the Kingdom of God.[web 9] While the Kingdom is essentially described as eschatological (relating to the end of the world), becoming reality in the near future, some texts present the Kingdom as already being present, while other texts depict the Kingdom as a place in heaven that one enters after death, or as the presence of God on earth.[web 9][note 7]. Jesus talks as expecting the coming of the "Son of Man" from heaven, an apocalyptic figure who would initiate "the coming judgment and the redemption of Israel."[web 9] According to Davies, the Sermon on the Mount presents Jesus as the new Moses who brings a New Law (a reference to the Law of Moses, the Messianic Torah.[66]
Death and resurrection
Jesus' life was ended by his execution by crucifixion. His early followers believed that three days after his death, Jesus rose bodily from the dead.[67][68][69][70][71] Paul's letters and the Gospels contain reports of a number of appearances after his death and burial.[72][73][74][75][76]
The belief in the resurrection of Jesus gave the impetus in certain Christian sects to the
Apostolic Age
Traditionally, the period from the death of Jesus until the death of the last of the
The New Testament writings depict what orthodox Christian churches call the
Paul's
Jewish Christianity
After the death and resurrection of Jesus, Christianity first emerged as a sect of Judaism as practiced in the
The Jerusalem ekklēsia
The
According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis, the Jerusalem church fled to Pella at the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War (AD 66–73).[105]
The Jerusalem community consisted of "Hebrews," Jews speaking both Aramaic and Greek, and "Hellenists," Jews speaking only Greek, possibly diaspora Jews who had resettled in Jerusalem.[106] According to Dunn, Paul's initial persecution of Christians probably was directed against these Greek-speaking "Hellenists" due to their anti-Temple attitude.[107] Within the early Jewish Christian community, this also set them apart from the "Hebrews" and their Tabernacle observance.[107]
Beliefs and practices
Creeds and salvation
The sources for the beliefs of the apostolic community include
.The texts contain the earliest Christian creeds[113] expressing belief in the resurrected Jesus, such as 1 Corinthians 15:3–41:[114]
[3] For I handed on to you as of first importance what I in turn had received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures, [4] and that he was buried, and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures,[note 12] [5] and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. [6] Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have died. [7] Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles.[web 14]
The creed has been dated by some scholars as originating within the Jerusalem apostolic community no later than the 40s,).
Christology
Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation Christology."[122] The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship.[123][71][124][web 15]
The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead,"[125] thereby raising him to "divine status."[web 16] According to the "evolutionary model"[126] c.q. "evolutionary theories,"[127] the Christological understanding of Christ developed over time,[19][128][129] as witnessed in the Gospels,[71] with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was exalted, c.q. adopted as God's Son,[130][131] when he was resurrected.[129][132] Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John.[129] This evolutionary model was very influential, and the "low Christology" has long been regarded as the oldest Christology.[133][134][web 16][note 13]
The other early Christology is "high Christology," which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come,"[web 16][135] and from where he appeared on earth. According to Hurtado, a proponent of an Early High Christology, the devotion to Jesus as divine originated in early Jewish Christianity, and not later or under the influence of pagan religions and Gentile converts.[136] The Pauline letters, which are the earliest Christian writings, already show "a well-developed pattern of Christian devotion [...] already conventionalized and apparently uncontroversial."[137]
Some Christians began to worship Jesus as Lord.[138][further explanation needed]
Eschatological expectations
Ehrman and other scholars believe that Jesus' early followers expected the immediate installment of the Kingdom of God, but that as time went on without this occurring, it led to a change in beliefs.[1][web 18] In time, the belief that Jesus' resurrection signaled the imminent coming of the Kingdom of God changed into a belief that the resurrection confirmed the Messianic status of Jesus, and the belief that Jesus would return at some indeterminate time in the future, the Second Coming, heralding the expected endtime.[1][web 18] When the Kingdom of God did not arrive, Christians' beliefs gradually changed into the expectation of an immediate reward in heaven after death, rather than to a future divine kingdom on Earth,[139] despite the churches' continuing to use the major creeds' statements of belief in a coming resurrection day and world to come.[citation needed]
Angels and Devils
Coming from a Jewish background, early Christians believed in angels (derived from the Greek word for "messengers").[140] Specifically, early Christians wrote in the New Testament books that angels "heralded Jesus' birth, Resurrection, and Ascension; ministered to Him while He was on Earth; and sing the praises of God through all eternity."[140] Early Christians also believed that protecting angels—assigned to each nation and even to each individual—would herald the Second Coming, lead the saints into Paradise, and cast the damned into Hell."[140] Satan ("the adversary"), similar to descriptions in the Old Testament, appears in the New Testament "to accuse men of sin and to test their fidelity, even to the point of tempting Jesus."[140]
Practices
The Book of Acts reports that the early followers continued daily Temple attendance and traditional Jewish home prayer, Jewish liturgical, a set of scriptural readings adapted from synagogue practice, and use of sacred music in hymns and prayer. Other passages in the New Testament gospels reflect a similar observance of traditional Jewish piety such as baptism,[web 19] fasting, reverence for the Torah, and observance of Jewish holy days.[141][142]
Baptism
Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings. It seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesus's disciples practised baptism. John the Baptist had baptized many people, before baptisms took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Paul likened baptism to being buried with Christ in his death.[note 14]
Communal meals and Eucharist
Early Christian rituals included communal meals.[143][144] The Eucharist was often a part of the Lovefeast, but between the latter part of the 1st century AD and 250 AD the two became separate rituals.[145][146][147] Thus, in modern times the Lovefeast refers to a Christian ritual meal distinct from the Lord's Supper.[148]
Liturgy
During the first three centuries of Christianity, the
At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, but within twenty years of Jesus' death, Sunday (the Lord's Day) was being regarded as the primary day of worship.[150]
Emerging church – mission to the Gentiles
With the start of their missionary activity, early Jewish Christians also started to attract proselytes, Gentiles who were fully or partly converted to Judaism.[151][note 15]
Growth of early Christianity
The scope of the Jewish-Christian mission expanded over time. While Jesus limited his message to a Jewish audience in Galilee and Judea, after his death his followers extended their outreach to all of Israel, and eventually the whole Jewish diaspora, believing that the Second Coming would only happen when all Jews had received the Gospel.
According to Fredriksen, when early Christians broadened their missionary efforts, they also came into contact with Gentiles attracted to the Jewish religion. Eventually, the Gentiles came to be included in the missionary effort of Hellenised Jews, bringing "all nations" into the house of God.[1] The "Hellenists," Greek-speaking diaspora Jews belonging to the early Jerusalem Jesus-movement, played an important role in reaching a Gentile, Greek audience, notably at Antioch, which had a large Jewish community and significant numbers of Gentile "God-fearers."[151] From Antioch, the mission to the Gentiles started, including Paul's, which would fundamentally change the character of the early Christian movement, eventually turning it into a new, Gentile religion.[158] According to Dunn, within 10 years after Jesus' death, "the new messianic movement focused on Jesus began to modulate into something different ... it was at Antioch that we can begin to speak of the new movement as 'Christianity'."[159]
Christian groups and congregations first organized themselves loosely. In
Paul and the inclusion of Gentiles
Conversion
Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other
Paul was in contact with the early Christian community in
Inclusion of Gentiles
Paul was responsible for bringing Christianity to
Paul objected strongly to the insistence on keeping all of the Jewish commandments,[170] considering it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith in Christ.[175][184] According to Paula Fredriksen, Paul's opposition to male circumcison for Gentiles is in line with the Old Testament predictions that "in the last days the gentile nations would come to the God of Israel, as gentiles (e.g., Zechariah 8:20–23), not as proselytes to Israel."[web 12] For Paul, Gentile male circumcision was therefore an affront to God's intentions.[web 12] According to Larry Hurtado, "Paul saw himself as what Munck called a salvation-historical figure in his own right", who was "personally and singularly deputized by God to bring about the predicted ingathering (the "fullness") of the nations (Romans 11:25)."[web 12]
For Paul, Jesus' death and resurrection solved the problem of the exclusion of Gentiles from God's covenant,[185][186] since the faithful are redeemed by participation in Jesus' death and rising. In the Jerusalem ekklēsia, from which Paul received the creed of 1 Corinthians 15:1–7, the phrase "died for our sins" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the Scriptures. For Paul, it gained a deeper significance, providing "a basis for the salvation of sinful Gentiles apart from the Torah."[187] According to E. P. Sanders, Paul argued that "those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape the power of sin [...] he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently live with him."[web 24] By this participation in Christ's death and rising, "one receives forgiveness for past offences, is liberated from the powers of sin, and receives the Spirit."[188] Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Second Temple Judaism of c. 200 BC until 200 AD, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God.[web 25]
These divergent interpretations have a prominent place in both Paul's writings and in Acts. According to Galatians 2:1–10 and Acts chapter 15, fourteen years after his conversion Paul visited the "Pillars of Jerusalem", the leaders of the Jerusalem ekklēsia. His purpose was to compare his Gospel[clarification needed] with theirs, an event known as the Council of Jerusalem. According to Paul, in his letter to the Galatians,[note 19] they agreed that his mission was to be among the Gentiles. According to Acts,[189] Paul made an argument that circumcision was not a necessary practice, vocally supported by Peter.[7][190][note 20]
While the Council of Jerusalem was described as resulting in an agreement to allow Gentile converts exemption from most
Persecutions
Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire occurred frequently over a period of over two centuries. For most of the first three hundred years of Christian history, Christians had to hide their faith and, practice their beliefs in secret and rise to positions of responsibility so they weren't killed.[195] Persecutions took place as the result of the state authorizing others in power to take action against the Christians in their midst, who were thought to bring misfortune by their refusal to honour the gods ans challenge the infrastructure of an imperialist empire.[196]
Only for approximately ten out of the first three hundred years of the church's history were Christians executed due to orders from a Roman emperor.
Development of the Biblical canon
In an ancient culture before the
Books not accepted by Pauline Christianity are termed biblical apocrypha, though the exact list varies from denomination to denomination.[citation needed]
Old Testament
The
Perhaps the earliest Christian canon is the Bryennios List, dated to c. 100, which was found by Philotheos Bryennios in the Codex Hierosolymitanus. The list is written in Koine Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew.[199] In the 2nd century, Melito of Sardis called the Jewish scriptures the "Old Testament"[200] and also specified an early canon.[citation needed]
Jerome (347–420) expressed his preference for adhering strictly to the Hebrew text and canon, but his view held little currency even in his own day.[201]
New Testament
Part of New Testament papyri , showing 2 Cor 11:33–12:9 |
The
Writings attributed to the
Early orthodox writings – Apostolic Fathers
The
Taken as a whole, the collection is notable for its literary simplicity, religious zeal and lack of Hellenistic philosophy or rhetoric. They contain early thoughts on the organisation of the Christian ekklēsia, and are historical sources for the development of an early Church structure.[citation needed]
In his letter
Ignatius of Antioch advocated the authority of the apostolic episcopacy (bishops).[204]
The Didache (late 1st century)[205] is an anonymous Jewish-Christian work. It is a pastoral manual dealing with Christian lessons, rituals, and Church organization, parts of which may have constituted the first written catechism, "that reveals more about how Jewish-Christians saw themselves and how they adapted their Judaism for Gentiles than any other book in the Christian Scriptures."[206]
Split of early Christianity and Judaism
Split with Judaism
There was a slowly growing chasm between Gentile Christians, and Jews and Jewish Christians, rather than a sudden split. Even though it is commonly thought that Paul established a Gentile church, it took a century for a complete break to manifest. Growing tensions led to a starker separation that was virtually complete by the time Jewish Christians refused to join in the Bar Kokhba Jewish revolt of 132.[208] Certain events are perceived as pivotal in the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism.[citation needed]
The
The hypothetical Council of Jamnia c. 85 is often stated to have condemned all who claimed the Messiah had already come, and Christianity in particular, excluding them from attending synagogue.[210][211][212][need quotation to verify] However, the formulated prayer in question (birkat ha-minim) is considered by other scholars to be unremarkable in the history of Jewish and Christian relations. There is a scarcity of evidence for Jewish persecution of "heretics" in general, or Christians in particular, in the period between 70 and 135. It is probable that the condemnation of Jamnia included many groups, of which the Christians were but one, and did not necessarily mean excommunication. That some of the later church fathers only recommended against synagogue attendance makes it improbable that an anti-Christian prayer was a common part of the synagogue liturgy. Jewish Christians continued to worship in synagogues for centuries.[210][212]
During the late 1st century, Judaism was a legal religion with the protection of
From c. 98 onwards a distinction between Christians and Jews in Roman literature becomes apparent. For example, Pliny the Younger postulates that Christians are not Jews since they do not pay the tax, in his letters to Trajan.[213][214]
Later rejection of Jewish Christianity
Jewish Christians constituted a separate community from the Pauline Christians but maintained a similar faith. In Christian circles, Nazarene later came to be used as a label for those faithful to Jewish Law, in particular for a certain sect. These Jewish Christians, originally the central group in Christianity, generally holding the same beliefs except in their adherence to Jewish law, were not deemed heretical until the dominance of orthodoxy in the 4th century.[216] The Ebionites may have been a splinter group of Nazarenes, with disagreements over Christology and leadership. They were considered by Gentile Christians to have unorthodox beliefs, particularly in relation to their views of Christ and Gentile converts. After the condemnation of the Nazarenes, Ebionite was often used as a general pejorative for all related "heresies".[217][218]
There was a post-Nicene "double rejection" of the Jewish Christians by both Gentile Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism. The true end of ancient Jewish Christianity occurred only in the 5th century.[219] Gentile Christianity became the dominant strand of orthodoxy and imposed itself on the previously Jewish Christian sanctuaries, taking full control of those houses of worship by the end of the 5th century.[216][note 22]
Timeline
This article's factual accuracy is disputed. (March 2019) |
Earliest dates must all be considered approximate
- 6 BC Judean King Iudaea Province under direct Roman administration,[220] capital at Caesarea, Quirinius became Legate (Governor) of Syria, conducted Census of Quirinius, opposed by the Zealots (JA18, Luke 2:1–3, Acts 5:37).
- c. 4 BC )
- 7–26 AD Brief period of peace, relatively free of revolt and bloodshed in Iudaea and Galilee[221][222]
- 9 Pharisee leader Hillel the Elder dies, temporary rise of Shammai
- 14–37 Rule of the Roman Emperor Tiberius
- 18–36 Lucius Vitellius
- 19
- 26–36 Pontius Pilate, Prefect (governor) of Iudaea, recalled to Rome by Syrian Legate Vitellius on complaints of excess violence (JA18.4.2)
- 28 or 29 ministry in the "15th year of Tiberius" (Luke 3:1–2) (Matt 3:1–2)
- 30 – Great Commission of Jesus to go and make disciples of all nations;[224]
- 30–36 Jesus is crucified on order of Pontius Pilate. Christians believe he rose from the dead 3 days later. Pentecost, a day in which 3000 Jews from a variety of Mediterranean-basin nations are converted to faith in Jesus Christ.
- 34 – Philip baptizes a convert in Gaza, an Ethiopian eunuch who was already a God-fearer.[225]
- 39 – Peter preaches to a Gentile audience in the house of the Roman soldier Cornelius, who was already a God-fearer.[225]
- 37–41 Crisis under Caligula[226]
- 42 – Mark goes to Egypt[227]
- 44? Herod Agrippa I in the year 44 during a Passover (Nisan 15) (Acts 12:1–3).
- 44 Death of Herod Agrippa I (JA19.8.2, Acts 12:20–23)
- 44–46? Procurator Cuspius Fadus for saying he would part the Jordan river (like Moses and the Red Sea or Joshua and the Jordan) (JA20.5.1, Acts 5:36–37 places it before the Census of Quirinius)
- 45–49? Mission of
- 47? St. Thomas Christianity, now in several forms, is begun in India by Thomas.
- 47 –
- 48–100
- 50 Passover riot in Jerusalem, 20–30,000 killed (JA20.5.3, JW2.12.1)
- 50 – Gentiles into the Church[228]
- 50? Council of Jerusalem and the "Apostolic Decree", Acts 15:1–35, same as Galatians 2:1–10?, which is followed by the "Incident at Antioch",[229] at which Paul publicly accused Peter of "Judaizing" towards the Gentiles (2:11–21)[230]
- 51 – Paul begins his second missionary journey, a trip that takes him through
- 50–53? Paul's second mission (Acts 15:36–18:22), split with Barnabas, preaches the Gospel in Galatians written? Map2
- 51–52 or 52–53 proconsulship of Gallio according to an inscription, only fixed date in chronology of Paul[232]
- 52 – Syro-Malabar Catholic Church and the Malankara Church (and its various descendants)[233]
- 54 – Paul begins his third missionary journey[web 32]
- 53–57? Paul's third mission (Acts 18:23–22:30) to Galatia, Phrygia, Macedonia, Corinth,
- 55? "Procurator Antonius Felix (JW2.13.5, JA20.8.6, Acts 21:38)
- 58? Paul arrested, accused of being a resurrection of the dead, imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23–26)
- 59? Paul shipwrecked on the island of Malta, there he was called a god (Acts 28:6)
- 60 – Paul sent to Rome under Roman guard, evangelizes on Malta after shipwreck[231]
- 60? Paul in Rome: greeted by many "brothers" (Kingdom of God and teaching the "Lord Jesus Christ" (Acts 28:15–31); Epistle to Philemonwritten?
- 62 James the Just stoned to death for law transgression by High Priest Ananus ben Artanus, popular opinion against act results in Ananus being deposed by new procurator Lucceius Albinus (JA20.9.1)
- 63–107? Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified under Trajan
- 64–68 after 18 July Great Fire of Rome, Nero blamed and persecuted the Christians
- 64/67(?)–76/79(?) Pope Linus succeeds Peter as Episcopus Romanus ("Bishop of Rome")
- 65?
- 66 – Thaddeus establishes the Christian church of Armenia[234]
- 66–73 Herod's Temple, Qumran community destroyed, site of Dead Sea Scrollsfound in 1947
- 68–107? catholic" (Smy 8:2).
- 69 –
- 70(+/−10)? Gospel of Mark, written in Rome, by Peter's interpreter (1 Peter 5:13), original ending apparently lost, endings added c. 400, see Mark 16
- 70? Signs Gospel written, hypothetical Greek text used in Gospel of John to prove that Jesus is the Messiah
- 70–100? additional Pauline epistles
- 70–200?
- 76/79(?)–88 Pope Anacletus first Greek Pope, who succeeds Linus as Episcopus Romanus ("Bishop of Rome")
- 80 – First Christians reported in Tunisia and Gaul (modern-day France)[224]
- 80(+/−20)? Gospel of Matthew, theoretically based on Mark and Q, most popular in early Christianity
- 80(+/−20)? Gospel of Luke, theoretically based on Mark and Q, also Acts of the Apostles by same author
- 88–101? Clement, fourth Episcopus Romanus ("Bishop of Rome"), wrote Letter of the Romans to the Corinthians(Apostolic Fathers)
- 90? Fiscus Iudaicus tax even to those who merely "lived like Jews"[web 33]
- 90(+/−10)? 1 Peter
- 94 "Aramaic, translated to Koine Greek
- 95(+/−30)? Epistles of John
- 95(+/−10)? Book of Revelation written, by John (son of Zebedee) and/or a disciple of his
- 100(+/−30)? Epistle of Barnabas (Apostolic Fathers)
- 100(+/−25)? Epistle of James
- 100(+/−10)? Epistle of Jude written, probably by doubting relative of Jesus (Mark 6:3), rejected by some early Christians due to its reference to apocryphal Book of Enoch (v14), Epistle to the Hebrews written
- 100 – First Christians are reported in Arbela, old sacred city of the Assyrians.[236]
See also
- Christian martyrs
- Christianity and Judaism
- Christianization
- Christian symbolism#Early Christian symbols
- Chronological list of saints in the 1st century
- Council of Jerusalem
- Classical antiquity
- Early centers of Christianity
- Early Christian art and architecture
- Hellenistic Judaism
- History of Christian theology
- History of Christianity
- History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
- History of the Catholic Church
- Historiography of early Christianity
- Jesuism
- Mandaeism
- Persecution of Christians in the New Testament
- Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire
- Spread of Christianity § Apostolic Age
- Timeline of Christian missions
- Timeline of Christianity
- Timeline of the Catholic Church
- Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation
Notes
- English translations of the New Testament capitalize "the Way" (e.g. the New King James Version and the English Standard Version), indicating that this was how "the new religion seemed then to be designated"[web 3] whereas others treat the phrase as indicative—"the way",[10] "that way"[web 4] or "the way of the Lord".[web 5] The Syriac version reads, "the way of God" and the Vulgate Latin version, "the way of the Lord".[web 6].
See also Sect of "The Way", "The Nazarenes" and "Christians": Names given to the Early Church - ^ The notion of Apocalyptic prophet is shared by E. P. Sanders,[44] a main proponent of the New Perspective on Paul, and Bart Ehrman.[web 10][web 11]
- ^ According to E. P. Sanders, Jesus's ideas on healing and forgiveness were in line with Second Temple Jewish thought and would not have been likely to provoke controversy among the Jewish authorities of his day."[45]
- ^ In a review of the state of research, Amy-Jill Levine stated that "no single picture of Jesus has convinced all, or even most scholars" and that all portraits of Jesus are subject to criticism by some group of scholars.[46]
- his first disciples who begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church.[47][49]The major Galilean ministry which begins in In the later Judean ministry Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.[54][55][56][57] The final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called thePassion Week and begins with Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem.[58] The gospels provide more details about the final ministry than the other periods, devoting about one third of their text to the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.[59]
- ^ Sanders and Pelikan: "Besides presenting a longer ministry than do the other Gospels, John also describes several trips to Jerusalem. Only one is mentioned in the Synoptics. Both outlines are plausible, but a ministry of more than two years leaves more questions unanswered than does one of a few months."[web 9]
- ^ The Kingdom is described as both imminent (Mark 1:15) and already present in the ministry of Jesus (Luke 17:21) (Others interpret "Kingdom of God" to mean a way of living, or as a period of evangelization; no overall consensus among scholars has emerged on its meaning.[64][65]) Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message (Mark 10:13–27)
- Shaye J.D. Cohen, Jesus's failure to establish an independent Israel, and his death at the hands of the Romans, caused many Jews to reject him as the Messiah.[95]Jews at that time were expecting a military leader as a Messiah, such as Bar Kohhba.
- Jewish lawwhich was being formalized at the same time
- ^ Acts 15 and Acts 21
- ^ Hurtado: "She refrains from referring to this earliest stage of the "Jesus-community" as early "Christianity" and comprisedof "churches," as the terms carry baggage of later developments of "organized institutions, and of a religion separate from, different from, and hostile to Judaism" (185). So, instead, she renders ekklēsia as "assembly" (quite appropriately in my view, reflecting the quasi-official connotation of the term, often both in the LXX and in wider usage)."[web 12]
- ^ See Why was Resurrection on "the Third Day"? Two Insights for explanations on the phrase "third day." According to Pinchas Lapide, "third day" may refer to Hosea 6:1–2:
"Come, let us return to the Lord;
for he has torn us, that he may heal us;
he has struck us down, and he will bind us up.
After two days he will revive us;
on the third day he will raise us up,
that we may live before him."
See also 2 Kings 20:8: "Hezekiah said to Isaiah, 'What shall be the sign that the Lord will heal me, and that I shall go up to the house of the Lord on the third day?'" - ^ Ehrman:
* "The earliest Christians held exaltation Christologies in which the human being Jesus was made the Son of God—for example, at his resurrection or at his baptism—as we examined in the previous chapter."[134]
* Here I'll say something about the oldest Christology, as I understand it. This was what I earlier called a "low" Christology. I may end up in the book describing it as a "Christology from below" or possibly an "exaltation" Christology. Or maybe I'll call it all three things [...] Along with lots of other scholars, I think this was indeed the earliest Christology.[web 17] - ^ Romans 6:3–4; Colossians 2:12
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte: "The English term "proselyte" occurs only in the New Testament where it signifies a convert to the Jewish religion (Matthew 23:15; Acts 2:11; 6:5; etc.), though the same Greek word is commonly used in the Septuagint to designate a foreigner living in Judea. The term seems to have passed from an original local and chiefly political sense, in which it was used as early as 300 BC, to a technical and religious meaning in the Judaism of the New Testament epoch."
- Greek colonies for the background]. Their language was Greek, their organization Greek, their writers Greek, their scriptures Greek; and many vestiges and traditions show that their ritual, their Liturgy, was Greek."[web 21]
- ^ Despite its mention of bishops, there is no clear evidence in the New Testament that supports the concepts of dioceses and monepiscopacy, i.e. the rule that all the churches in a geographic area should be ruled by a single bishop. According to Ronald Y. K. Fung, scholars point to evidence that Christian communities such as Rome had many bishops, and that the concept of monepiscopacy was still emerging when Ignatius was urging his tri-partite structure on other churches.[161]
- ^ According to Mack, "Paul was converted to a Hellenized form of some Jesus movement that had already developed into a Christ cult. [...] Thus his letters serve as documentation for the Christ cult as well."[167]
- ^ Four years after the Council of Jerusalem, Paul wrote to the Galatians about the issue, which had become a serious controversy in their region. There was a burgeoning movement of Judaizers in the area that advocated adherence to the Mosaic Law, including circumcision. According to McGrath, Paul identified James the Just as the motivating force behind the Judaizing movement. Paul considered it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith and addressed the issue with great detail in Galatians 3.[179]
- Marcion and his followers stated that the polemic against false apostles in Galatians was aimed at Peter, James and John, the "Pillars of the Church", as well as the "false" gospels circulating through the churches at the time. Irenaeus and Tertullian argued against Marcionism's elevation of Paul and stated that Peter and Paul were equals among the apostles. Passages from Galatians were used to show that Paul respected Peter's office and acknowledged a shared faith.[191][192]
- ^ Three forms are postulated, from Gamble, Harry Y, "18", The Canon Debate, p. 300, note 21,
(1) Marcion's collection that begins with Galatians and ends with Philemon; (2) Papyrus 46, dated about 200, that follows the order that became established except for reversing Ephesians and Galatians; and (3) the letters to seven churches, treating those to the same church as one letter and basing the order on length, so that Corinthians is first and Colossians (perhaps including Philemon) is last.
- Elchasaites, and others) existed for some time, and a few of them seem to have endured for several centuries. Some sects saw in Jesus mainly a prophet and not the "Christ," others seem to have believed in him as the Messiah, but did not draw the christological and other conclusions that subsequently became fundamental in the teaching of the Church (the divinity of the Christ, trinitarian conception of the Godhead, abrogation of the Law). After the disappearance of the early Jewish Christian sects and the triumph of gentile Christianity, to become a Christian meant, for a Jew, to apostatize and to leave the Jewish community.[web 30]
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- ^ Barnett 2002, p. 21.
- ^ Niswonger 1993, p. 200.
- ^ a b Klutz 2002, pp. 178–190.
- ^ Seifrid 1992, pp. 210–211, 246–247.
- ^ a b c McGrath 2006, p. 174.
- ^ a b Cwiekowski 1988, pp. 79–80.
- ^ Pao 2016, p. 65.
- ^ Jubilee Bible 2000.[full citation needed]
- ^ Peterson 1959, pp. 353–372.
- ^ Elwell & Comfort 2001, pp. 266, 828.
- ^ Ehrman 2005.
- ^ Hurtado 2005, pp. 13–55.
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- ^ Wilken 2013a.
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- ^ a b Burkett 2002, p. 3.
- ^ a b Mack 1995, p. [page needed].
- ^ González 2010, p. 14.
- ^ MacCulloch 2010, p. 72.
- ^ González 1987, p. 37.
- ^ Ehrman 2012, pp. 272–273.
- ^ Fredriksen 1999, pp. 119–121.
- ^ Bond 2012, pp. 62–64.
- ^ Fredriksen 1999, p. 124.
- ^ Bond 2012, p. 63.
- ^ González 1987, p. 38.
- ^ a b Powell 1998, p. 181.
- ISBN 978-0521796781.
- ISBN 978-9004111424.
- ^ a b Stanton 2002, p. 145.
- ^ Dunn 2003, p. 339 states that baptism and crucifixion are "two facts in the life of Jesus [which] command almost universal assent".
- ^ Crossan 1995, p. 145: "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus ... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact."
- ^ Levine 2006, p. 4; Herzog 2005, pp. 1–6; Craig 2001, pp. 2–5; Tuckett 2001, pp. 122–26; Ehrman 1999, pp. 100–101;Chilton & Evans 2002, p. 3–7
- ^ Levine 2006, p. 4.
- ^ Ehrman (2012), p. 71.
- ^ Stanton 2002, p. xxiii.
- ^ a b Köstenberger & Kellum 2009, pp. 124–125.
- ^ a b Mitchell & Young 2006, p. 23.
- ^ Herzog 2005, p. 8.
- ^ Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition)
- ^ Ehrman 1999, pp. ix–x.
- ^ E.P. Sanders (1993). The Historical Figure of Jesus
- ^ E.P. Sanders 1993 The Historical Figure of Jesus, p. 213
- ^ Levine 2006, pp. 1–2.
- ^ a b McGrath 2006, pp. 16–22.
- ISBN 0-85111-338-9p. 71
- ^ Redford 2007, pp. 117–130.
- ^ A Theology of the New Testament by George Eldon Ladd 1993 p. 324
- ^ Redford 2007, pp. 143–160.
- ^ Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 97–110.
- ^ Redford 2007, pp. 165–180.
- ISBN 0-8006-2337-1pp. 91–95
- ISBN 0-521-00261-3pp. 132–33
- ^ Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 121–135.
- ^ Redford 2007, pp. 189–207.
- ^ Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 155–170.
- ISBN 0-8010-2684-9p. 613
- ^ a b Köstenberger & Kellum 2009, p. 140
- ^ ISBN 0-931464-50-1pp. 113–29
- ^ Barnett 2002, pp. 19–21.
- ISBN 978-1-4514-0863-8. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 2020-10-08.
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- ^ Lawrence 2017, p. 60.
- ^ Grant 1977, p. 176.
- ^ Maier 1975, p. 5.
- ^ Van Daalen 1972, p. 41.
- ^ Kremer 1977, pp. 49–50.
- ^ a b c Ehrman 2014.
- ^ Gundry 1976, p. [page needed].
- ^ Weiss 1910, p. 345.
- ^ Davies 1965, pp. 305–308.
- ^ Wilckens 1970, pp. 128–131.
- ^ Smith 1969, p. 406.
- ^ "Habermas". Archived from the original on 2003-02-07. Retrieved 2005-08-26.
- ^ Craig
- ^ Michael Morrison The Resurrection of Jesus: A History of Interpretation Archived 2015-03-29 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Wright, N.T. (2003), The Resurrection of the Son of God, pp.9-10
- ^ Blomberg, Craig L. (1987), The Historical Reliability of the Gospels, 2nd Ed, 2007.
- ^ a b Komarnitsky 2014.
- ^ a b Bermejo-Rubio 2017.
- ^ Ehrman 2014, pp. 109–10.
- ^ Koester, Helmut (2000), Introduction to the New Testament, Vol. 2: History and Literature of Early Christianity, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 64–65
- ^ Vermes, Geza (2008), The Resurrection, London: Penguin, pp. 151–52
- ^ Matt 24:34
- ^ Bargil Pixner, The Church of the Apostles found on Mount Zion, Biblical Archaeology Review 16.3 May/June 1990, centuryone.org Archived 2018-03-09 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Franzen 1988, p. 20.
- ^ Acts 1:13–15
- ^ a b c Vidmar 2005, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 130
- ^ Acts 11:26
- ^ Cohen 1987, pp. 167–68.
- ^ Cohen 1987, p. 168.
- ISBN 0-8028-3782-4.
- ^ Galatians 2:9, Acts 1:13
- ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 160.
- ^ Pagels 2005, p. 45.
- ^ Lüdemann & Özen 1996, p. 116.
- ^ Pagels 2005, pp. 45–46.
- ^ a b c Lüdemann & Özen 1996, pp. 116–17.
- ^ Bockmuehl, Markus N. A. (2010), The Remembered Peter: In Ancient Reception and Modern Debate, Mohr Siebeck, p. 52
- ^ a b Taylor 1993, p. 224.
- ^ Eusebius, Church History 3, 5, 3; Epiphanius, Panarion 29,7,7–8; 30, 2, 7; On Weights and Measures 15. On the flight to Pella see: Bourgel, Jonathan (2010). "The Jewish Christians' Move from Jerusalem as a pragmatic choice". In Dan Jaffe (ed.). Studies in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity. Leyden: Brill. pp. 107–138.; P. H. R. van Houwelingen, "Fleeing forward: The departure of Christians from Jerusalem to Pella," Westminster Theological Journal 65 (2003), 181–200.
- ^ Dunn 2009, pp. 246–47.
- ^ a b Dunn 2009, p. 277.
- ^ Burkett 2002.
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- , pp. 150–74
- , pp. 192–210
- , pp. 54–99
- ^ Cullmann 1949, p. [page needed].
- ^ Neufeld 1964, p. 47.
- ^ O'Collins 1978, p. 112.
- ^ Hunter 1973, p. 100.
- ^ Pannenberg 1968, p. 90.
- ^ Cullmann 1966, p. 66.
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- ^ Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament vol 1, pp. 49, 81
- ^ Pannenberg 1968, pp. 118, 283, 367.
- ^ Ehrman 2014, p. 125.
- ^ Loke 2017.
- ^ Talbert 2011, pp. 3–6.
- ^ Ehrman 2014, pp. 120, 122.
- ^ Netland 2001, p. 175.
- ^ Loke 2017, p. 3.
- ^ Ehrman 2003.
- ^ a b c Bart Ehrman, How Jesus became God, Course Guide
- ^ Loke 2017, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Talbert 2011, p. 3.
- ^ Geza Vermez (2008), The Resurrection, pp. 138–39
- ^ Bird 2017, pp. ix, xi.
- ^ a b Ehrman 2014, p. 132.
- ^ Ehrman 2014, p. 122.
- ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 650.
- ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 155.
- ^ Dunn 2003.
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- ^ OCLC 796754060.
- ^ White 2004, p. 127.
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For the early Christians, the agape signified the importance of fellowship. It was a ritual to celebrate the joy of eating, pleasure and company.
- ISBN 978-0830762132.
During the days of the Early Church, the believers would all gather together to share what was known as an agape feast, or "love feast." Those who could afford to bring food brought it to the feast and shared it with the other believers.
- ISBN 978-1493411740.
So strong were the overtones of the Eucharist as a meal of fellowship that in its earliest practice it often took place in concert with the Agape feast. By the latter part of the first century, however, as Andrew McGowan points out, this conjoined communal banquet was separated into "a morning sacramental ritual [and a] prosaic communal supper."
- ISBN 978-1579102098.
Agape (love feast), which ultimately became separate from the Eucharist...
- ISBN 978-0891126010.
Around AD 250 the lovefeast and Eucharist seem to separate, leaving the Eucharist to develop outside the context of a shared meal.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
- ISBN 978-0199665716.
- ^ Davidson 2005, p. 115.
- ^ a b Dunn 2009, p. 297.
- ^ a b c Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 281
- ^ a b c d Bokenkotter 2004, p. 18.
- ^ Franzen 1988, p. 29.
- ^ Ehrman 2012, pp. 87–90.
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- ^ Dunn 2009, p. 308.
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- ^ Cross & Livingstone 2005, "Paul".
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- ^ Galatians 1:15–16, 2:7–9; Romans 11:13; 1 Timothy 2:7; 2 Timothy 1:11.
- ^ a b Mack 1997, p. [page needed].
- ^ Mack 1997, p. 109.
- ISBN 978-0-8006-2549-8
- ^ Hurtado 2005, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 168.
- ^ a b c Cross & Livingstone 2005, pp. 1243–1245.
- ^ Stendahl 1963.
- ^ Dunn 1982, p. n.49.
- ^ Finlan 2004, p. 2.
- ^ a b Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 19–21.
- ^ a b c Hurtado 2005, pp. 162–165.
- ^ McGrath 2006, pp. 174–175.
- ^ Bokenkotter 2004, p. 19.
- ^ Acts 15:1
- ^ a b McGrath 2006, pp. 174–75.
- ^ S2CID 29580193. Retrieved 2020-01-03.
- ^ PMID 6994325. Retrieved 2020-01-03.
- ^ a b Fredriksen 2018, pp. 10–11.
- epispasm, that was aimed at elongation.
- ^ McGrath 2006, pp. 174–76.
- ^ Cross & Livingstone 2005, pp. 1244–1245.
- ^ Mack 1997, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 131.
- ^ Charry, Ellen T. (1999), By the Renewing of Your Minds: The Pastoral Function of Christian Doctrine, Oxford University Press, pp. 35–36
- ^ Acts 15
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (2002), p. 37
- ^ Keck 1988, p. [page needed].
- ^ Pelikan 1975, p. 113.
- ^ Cross & Livingstone 2005, p. 1244.
- ^ Burkett 2002, p. 263.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-06-210452-6.
- ^ a b Croix 2006, pp. 105–52.
- ^ The traditional title is: The Divine Liturgy of James the Holy Apostle and Brother of the Lord; Ante-Nicene Fathers by Philip Schaff in the public domain
- ^ McDonald & Sanders 2002, p. 72.
- ^ published by J. P. Audet in JTS 1950, v1, pp. 135–54, cited in The Council of Jamnia and the Old Testament Canon Archived February 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Robert C. Newman, 1983.
- ISBN 0-521-82692-6, p. 316
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The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books was written by Jesus' own disciples.
- ^ a b Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972
- Smyrnaeans8–9
- ^ Draper 2006, p. 178.
- ^ Milavec 2003, p. vii.
- ^ As translated by Molly Whittaker, Jews and Christians: Graeco-Roman Views, (Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 105.
- ^ Davidson 2005, p. 146.
- ^ Franzen 1988, p. 25.
- ^ a b Wylen 1995, p. 190.
- ^ Berard 2006, pp. 112–113.
- ^ a b Wright 1992, pp. 164–165.
- ^ a b Wylen 1995, pp. 190–192.
- ^ a b Dunn 1999, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Boatwright, Gargola & Talbert 2004, p. 426.
- ^ a b Dauphin 1993, pp. 235, 240–242.
- ^ Tabor 1998.
- ^ Esler 2004, pp. 157–159.
- ^ Dunn, James (1991), The Partings of the Ways
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- Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Tiberius 36
- ^ a b c Barnett 2002, p. 23.
- ^ a b Hurtado 2005, pp. 15, 38–39, 41–42.
- ISBN 0-674-39731-2, The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula, pp. 254–56
- ^ Kane 1982, p. 10.
- ^ a b Walker 1959, p. 26.
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers see section titled: "The Incident at Antioch"
- JSTOR 3267745.
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- ^ Pauline Chronology: His Life and Missionary Work, from Catholic Resources by Felix Just, S.J.
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- Talbert, Charles H. (2011), The Development of Christology during the First Hundred Years: and Other Essays on Early Christian Christology. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 140., Leiden: Brill Publishers
- Taylor, Joan E. (1993), Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198147856
- Thiessen, Matthew (September 2014). Breytenbach, Cilliers; Thom, Johan (eds.). "Paul's Argument against Gentile Circumcision in Romans 2:17-29". JSTOR 24735868.
- ISBN 978-0521796781.
- Van Daalen, D. H. (1972), The Real Resurrection, London: Collins
- Vidmar (2005), The Catholic Church Through the Ages
- Walker, Williston (1959), A History of the Christian Church[full citation needed]
- Weiss, Johannes (1910), Der erste Korintherbrief (9th ed.), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht
- White, L. Michael (2004), From Jesus to Christianity, HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-052655-6
- Wilken, Robert Louis (2013a). "Beginning in Jerusalem". The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. S2CID 160590164.
- Wilken, Robert Louis (2013b). "Divisions Within". The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. S2CID 160590164.
- Wilckens, Ulrich (1970), Auferstehung, Stuttgart and Berlin: Kreuz Verlag
- Wright, N.T. (1992), The New Testament and the People of God, Fortress Press, ISBN 0-8006-2681-8
- Wright, N.T. (2003), The Resurrection of the Son of God, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, ISBN 978-0-8006-2679-2
- Wylen, Stephen M. (1995), The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction, Paulist Press, ISBN 0-8091-3610-4
Web-sources
- ^ Zahn, Theodor. "John the Apostle", The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. VI, (Philip Schaff, ed.) CCEL
- ^ a b Larry Hurtado (August 17, 2017), "Paul, the Pagans' Apostle"
- ^ "Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary on Acts 19". Bible Hub. Retrieved 2015-10-08. See also: Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary.
- American King James Version
- Douai-Rheims Bible
- ^ "Gill's Exposition, commentary on Acts 19:23". Bible Hub. Retrieved 2015-10-08.
- ^ Flusser, David. "Second Temple Period". Messiah. Encyclopaedia Judaica 2008 The Gale Group. Retrieved 2012-12-02.
- ^ Blidstein, Gerald J. (2008). "Messiah". Encyclopaedia Judaica. The Gale Group. Retrieved 2012-12-02 – via Jewish Virtual Library and.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l E.P. Sanders, Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Jesus, Encyclopedia Britannica
- ^ Bart Ehrman (1 April 2018). "An Easter Reflection 2018". The Bart Ehrman Blog.
- ^ Bouma, Jeremy (27 March 2014). "The Early High Christology Club and Bart Ehrman – An Excerpt from "How God Became Jesus"". Zondervan Academic Blog. HarperCollins. Retrieved 2018-05-02.
- ^ a b c d e f Larry Hurtado (December 4, 2018), {{"'When Christians were Jews": Paula Fredriksen on "The First Generation'"
- ^ Bart Ehrman (5 oct. 2012), Gerd Lüdemann on the Resurrection of Jesus
- ^ "1 Corinthians 15:3–15:41". oremus Bible Browser.
- ^ Larry Hurtado, The Origin of "Divine Christology"?
- ^ a b c Ehrman, Bart D. (14 February 2013). "Incarnation Christology, Angels, and Paul". The Bart Ehrman Blog. Retrieved 2018-05-02.
- ^ Bart Ehrman (6 Feb. 2013), The Earliest Christology
- ^ a b Bart Ehrmann (June 4, 2016), Were Jesus' Followers Crazy? Was He?
- ^ "Baptism". jewishencyclopedia.com.
- ^ "Liturgy". jewishencyclopedia.com.
- ^ "Greek Orthodoxy – From Apostolic Times to the Present Day". ellopos.net.
- ^ Stephen Westerholm (2015), The New Perspective on Paul in Review, Direction, Spring 2015 · Vol. 44 No. 1 · pp. 4–15
- Antiochus Epiphanesprohibiting circumcision (I Macc. i. 48, 60; ii. 46); and the Jewish women showed their loyalty to the Law, even at the risk of their lives, by themselves circumcising their sons.
- ^ E.P. Sanders, Saint Paul, the Apostle, Encyclopedia Britannica
- ^ Jordan Cooper, E.P. Sanders and the New Perspective on Paul
- ^ Martin, D. 2010. "The 'Afterlife' of the New Testament and Postmodern Interpretation" Archived 2016-06-08 at the Wayback Machine (lecture transcript Archived 2016-08-12 at the Wayback Machine). Yale University.
- ^ "Persecution in the Early Church". Religion Facts. Archived from the original on 2014-03-25. Retrieved 2014-03-26.
- ^ "Swete's Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, p. 112". Ccel.org. Retrieved 2019-05-20.
- ^ "Pope St. Clement I". newadvent.org.
- ^ "Christianity: Severance from Judaism". Jewish Virtual Library. AICE. 2008. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
- ^ "Rome". jewishencyclopedia.com.
- ^ "Apostle Paul's Third Missionary Journey Map". biblestudy.org.
- ^ "Fiscus Judaicus". jewishencyclopedia.com.
Further reading
Books
- Bockmuehl, Markus N.A. (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Jesus. Cambridge University Press (2001). ISBN 0-521-79678-4.
- Bourgel, Jonathan, From One Identity to Another: The Mother Church of Jerusalem Between the Two Jewish Revolts Against Rome (66–135/6 EC). Paris: Éditions du Cerf, collection Judaïsme ancien et Christianisme primitive, (French). ISBN 978-2-204-10068-7
- ISBN 0-385-24767-2)
- Conzelmann, H. and Lindemann A., Interpreting the New Testament. An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of N.T. Exegesis, translated by S.S. Schatzmann, Hendrickson Publishers. Peabody 1988.
- Dormeyer, Detlev. The New Testament among the Writings of Antiquity (English translation), Sheffield 1998
- Dunn, James D.G. (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to St. Paul. Cambridge University Press (2003). ISBN 0-521-78694-0.
- Dunn, James D.G. Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity. SCM Press (2006). ISBN 0-334-02998-8.
- Edwards, Mark (2009). Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0754662914.
- Freedman, David Noel (Ed). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (2000). ISBN 0-8028-2400-5
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3167-5
- Mack, Burton L.: Who Wrote the New Testament?, Harper, 1996
- Mills, Watson E. Acts and Pauline Writings. Mercer University Press (1997). ISBN 0-86554-512-X.
- Malina, Bruce J.: Windows on the World of Jesus: Time Travel to Ancient Judea. Westminster John Knox Press: Louisville (Kentucky) 1993
- Malina, Bruce J.: The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology. 3rd edition, Westminster John Knox Press Louisville (Kentucky) 2001
- Malina, Bruce J.: Social Science Commentary on the Gospel of John Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 1998
- Malina, Bruce J.: Social-Science Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 2003
- McKechnie, Paul. The First Christian Centuries: Perspectives on the Early Church. Apollos (2001). ISBN 0-85111-479-2
- Stegemann, Ekkehard and Stegemann, Wolfgang: The Jesus Movement: A Social History of Its First Century. Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 1999
- Stegemann, Wolfgang, The Gospel and the Poor. Fortress Press. Minneapolis 1984 ISBN 0-8006-1783-5
- Thiessen, Henry C. Introduction to the New Testament, Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids 1976
- Wilson, Barrie A. "How Jesus Became Christian". St. Martin's Press (2008). ISBN 978-0-679-31493-6.
- Wright, N.T., "The New Unimproved Jesus", in Christianity Today, 1993-09-13
- Zahn, Theodor, Introduction to the New Testament, English translation, Edinburgh, 1910.
Book series
- Dunn, James D.G. (2005), Christianity in the Making Volume 1: Jesus Remembered, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
- Dunn, James D.G. (2009), Christianity in the Making Volume 2: Beginning from Jerusalem, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
- Dunn, James D.G. (2009), Christianity in the Making Volume 3: Neither Jew nor Greek, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
External links
- New Testament Reading Room Extensive online NT resources (incl. commentaries), Tyndale Seminary
- Scholarly articles on the New Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library
- Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Christian Origins Archived 2014-08-27 at the Wayback Machine
- Guide to Early Church Documents