Christianity in the 1st century

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Apostolic Age
)

Jesus Washing Peter's Feet, painting by Ford Madox Brown (1852–1856), Tate Britain, London

Christianity in the 1st century covers the formative

God's Kingdom at a later point in time.[1]

converted c. 33–36[2][3][4] and began to proselytize among the Gentiles. According to Paul, Gentile converts could be allowed exemption from Jewish commandments, arguing that all are justified by their faith in Jesus.[5][6] This was part of a gradual split between early Christianity and Judaism, as Christianity became a distinct religion including predominantly Gentile adherence.[5]

early centers of Christianity. The last apostle to die was John in c. 100.[web 1]

Etymology

Early

Antioch.[11] The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" (Greek: Χριστιανισμός) was by Ignatius of Antioch, in around 100 AD.[12]

Origins

Jewish–Hellenistic background

The earliest Christians were an

Greek culture.[19] A major challenge for Jews during this time was how to respond to Hellenization and remain faithful to their religious traditions.[20] During the early 1st century AD, there were many competing Jewish sects in the Holy Land, including Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and other groups. Each group adopted different stances toward Hellenization.[21]

The basic tenets of Jewish religion were ethical monotheism, the Torah (or Law), and an eschatology that looked forward to a future messianic age.[22] Jews believed the Law was given by God to guide them in their worship of the Lord and in their interactions with each other. A central concern in 1st century Judaism was the covenant with God, and the status of the Jews as the chosen people of God. Many Jews believed that this covenant would be renewed with the coming of the messiah.[23]

Messiah (

Jewish kings and in some cases priests and prophets whose status was symbolized by being anointed with holy anointing oil. It can refer to people chosen by God for a specific task, such as the whole Israelite nation (1 Chronicles 16:22; Psalm 105:15) or Cyrus the Great who ended the Babylonian captivity (Isaiah 45:1). The term is most associated with King David, to whom God promised an eternal kingdom (2 Samuel 7:11–17). After the destruction of David's kingdom and lineage, this promise was reaffirmed by the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, who foresaw a future Davidic king who would establish and reign over an idealized kingdom.[24]

In the

Son of Man who brings about the resurrection of the dead and the final judgment.[27][28] The concept has its root in the apocalyptic literature of the 2nd century BC to 1st century BC.[web 8]

Life and ministry of Jesus

Sources

Christian sources, such as the four

canonical gospels, the Pauline epistles, and the New Testament apocrypha,[web 9] include detailed stories about Jesus, but scholars differ on the historicity of specific episodes described in the Biblical accounts of Jesus.[29] The Gospels are theological documents, which "provide information the authors regarded as necessary for the religious development of the Christian communities in which they worked."[web 9] They consist of short passages, pericopes, which the Gospel-authors arranged in various ways as suited their aims.[web 9]

Non-Christian sources that are used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include Jewish sources such as Josephus, and Roman sources such as Tacitus. These sources are compared to Christian sources such as the Pauline epistles and the Synoptic Gospels. These sources are usually independent of each other (e.g. Jewish sources do not draw upon Roman sources), and similarities and differences between them are used in the authentication process.[30][31]

Historical person

Biblical scholar Graham Stanton notes that "nearly all historians, whether Christian or not, accept that Jesus existed", and more is known about him than any other 1st or 2nd-century religious teacher with the exception of Paul.[32] The two events of Jesus' life subject to "almost universal assent" are that Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist and was crucified by the order of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect.[33][34][35] Biblical scholar Amy-Jill Levine summarizes the scholarly consensus on Jesus' life as follows:[36]

Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (26–36 CE). But, to use the old cliché, the devil is in the details.

There is widespread disagreement among scholars on the details of the life of Jesus mentioned in the gospel narratives, and on the meaning of his teachings.[29] The gospels are "filled with nonhistorical material, accounts of events that could not have happened", and contradictory accounts of the same events.[37] As historical sources, the gospels have to be "weighed and assessed critically".[32] Scholars often draw a distinction between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith, and two different accounts can be found in this regard.[38]

Academic scholars have constructed a variety of portraits and profiles for Jesus.[39][40][41] Contemporary scholarship places Jesus firmly in the Jewish tradition,[42] and the most prominent understanding of Jesus is as a Jewish apocalyptic prophet or eschatological teacher.[43][note 2] Other portraits are the charismatic healer,[note 3] the Cynic philosopher, the Jewish Messiah, and the prophet of social change.[39][40][note 4]

Ministry and eschatological expectations

In the

Transjordan, near the Jordan River, and ends in Jerusalem, following the Last Supper with his disciples
. [47][note 5] The Gospel of Luke (Luke 3:23) states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.[60][61] A chronology of Jesus typically has the date of the start of his ministry estimated at AD 27–29 and the end in the range AD 30–36.[60][61][62]

In the

figures of speech.[63][web 9]
In the Gospel of John, Jesus himself is the main subject.[web 9]

The Synoptics present different views on the Kingdom of God.[web 9] While the Kingdom is essentially described as eschatological (relating to the end of the world), becoming reality in the near future, some texts present the Kingdom as already being present, while other texts depict the Kingdom as a place in heaven that one enters after death, or as the presence of God on earth.[web 9][note 7]. Jesus talks as expecting the coming of the "Son of Man" from heaven, an apocalyptic figure who would initiate "the coming judgment and the redemption of Israel."[web 9] According to Davies, the Sermon on the Mount presents Jesus as the new Moses who brings a New Law (a reference to the Law of Moses, the Messianic Torah.[66]

Death and resurrection

The Crucifixion, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, c. 1745–1750, Saint Louis Art Museum

Jesus' life was ended by his execution by crucifixion. His early followers believed that three days after his death, Jesus rose bodily from the dead.[67][68][69][70][71] Paul's letters and the Gospels contain reports of a number of appearances after his death and burial.[72][73][74][75][76]

Peter had a vision of Jesus, induced by his feelings of guilt for betraying Jesus. The vision elevated this feeling of guilt, and Peter experienced it as a real appearance of Jesus, raised from dead.[web 13]

The belief in the resurrection of Jesus gave the impetus in certain Christian sects to the

God's Kingdom[84][web 12] and the resumption of their missionary activity.[85][86] His followers expected Jesus to return within a generation[87] and begin the Kingdom of God.[web 9]

Apostolic Age

The Cenacle on Mount Zion, claimed to be the location of the Last Supper and Pentecost. Bargil Pixner[88] claims the original Church of the Apostles is located under the current structure.

Traditionally, the period from the death of Jesus until the death of the last of the

Jerusalem church began at Pentecost with some 120 believers,[90] in an "upper room," believed by some to be the Cenacle, where the apostles received the Holy Spirit and emerged from hiding following the death and resurrection of Jesus to preach and spread his message.[91][92]

The New Testament writings depict what orthodox Christian churches call the

Holy Spirit
.

Paul's

Antioch church was founded. It is also believed that it was Antioch where the name Christian was first used.[93]

Jewish Christianity

After the death and resurrection of Jesus, Christianity first emerged as a sect of Judaism as practiced in the

Gentile converts based on a version of the Noachide laws.[note 10]

The Jerusalem ekklēsia

James the Just, whose judgment was adopted in the apostolic decree of Acts 15:19–29

The

centered on Jerusalem, and that its leaders included Peter, James, the brother of Jesus, and John the Apostle.[97]
The Jerusalem community "held a central place among all the churches," as witnessed by Paul's writings.[98] Reportedly legitimised by Jesus' appearance, Peter was the first leader of the Jerusalem ekklēsia.[99][100] Peter was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just, "the Brother of the Lord,"
relatives of Jesus were generally accorded a special position within this community,[104] which also contributed to the ascendancy of James the Just in Jerusalem.[104]

According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis, the Jerusalem church fled to Pella at the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War (AD 66–73).[105]

The Jerusalem community consisted of "Hebrews," Jews speaking both Aramaic and Greek, and "Hellenists," Jews speaking only Greek, possibly diaspora Jews who had resettled in Jerusalem.[106] According to Dunn, Paul's initial persecution of Christians probably was directed against these Greek-speaking "Hellenists" due to their anti-Temple attitude.[107] Within the early Jewish Christian community, this also set them apart from the "Hebrews" and their Tabernacle observance.[107]

Beliefs and practices

Creeds and salvation

The sources for the beliefs of the apostolic community include

epistles and possibly lost texts such as the Q source[110][111][112] and the writings of Papias
.

The texts contain the earliest Christian creeds[113] expressing belief in the resurrected Jesus, such as 1 Corinthians 15:3–41:[114]

[3] For I handed on to you as of first importance what I in turn had received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures, [4] and that he was buried, and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures,[note 12] [5] and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. [6] Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have died. [7] Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles.[web 14]

The creed has been dated by some scholars as originating within the Jerusalem apostolic community no later than the 40s,

).

Christology

Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation Christology."[122] The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship.[123][71][124][web 15]

The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead,"[125] thereby raising him to "divine status."[web 16] According to the "evolutionary model"[126] c.q. "evolutionary theories,"[127] the Christological understanding of Christ developed over time,[19][128][129] as witnessed in the Gospels,[71] with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was exalted, c.q. adopted as God's Son,[130][131] when he was resurrected.[129][132] Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John.[129] This evolutionary model was very influential, and the "low Christology" has long been regarded as the oldest Christology.[133][134][web 16][note 13]

The other early Christology is "high Christology," which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come,"[web 16][135] and from where he appeared on earth. According to Hurtado, a proponent of an Early High Christology, the devotion to Jesus as divine originated in early Jewish Christianity, and not later or under the influence of pagan religions and Gentile converts.[136] The Pauline letters, which are the earliest Christian writings, already show "a well-developed pattern of Christian devotion [...] already conventionalized and apparently uncontroversial."[137]

Some Christians began to worship Jesus as Lord.[138][further explanation needed]

Eschatological expectations

Ehrman and other scholars believe that Jesus' early followers expected the immediate installment of the Kingdom of God, but that as time went on without this occurring, it led to a change in beliefs.[1][web 18] In time, the belief that Jesus' resurrection signaled the imminent coming of the Kingdom of God changed into a belief that the resurrection confirmed the Messianic status of Jesus, and the belief that Jesus would return at some indeterminate time in the future, the Second Coming, heralding the expected endtime.[1][web 18] When the Kingdom of God did not arrive, Christians' beliefs gradually changed into the expectation of an immediate reward in heaven after death, rather than to a future divine kingdom on Earth,[139] despite the churches' continuing to use the major creeds' statements of belief in a coming resurrection day and world to come.[citation needed]

Angels and Devils

Coming from a Jewish background, early Christians believed in angels (derived from the Greek word for "messengers").[140] Specifically, early Christians wrote in the New Testament books that angels "heralded Jesus' birth, Resurrection, and Ascension; ministered to Him while He was on Earth; and sing the praises of God through all eternity."[140] Early Christians also believed that protecting angels—assigned to each nation and even to each individual—would herald the Second Coming, lead the saints into Paradise, and cast the damned into Hell."[140] Satan ("the adversary"), similar to descriptions in the Old Testament, appears in the New Testament "to accuse men of sin and to test their fidelity, even to the point of tempting Jesus."[140]

Practices

The Book of Acts reports that the early followers continued daily Temple attendance and traditional Jewish home prayer, Jewish liturgical, a set of scriptural readings adapted from synagogue practice, and use of sacred music in hymns and prayer. Other passages in the New Testament gospels reflect a similar observance of traditional Jewish piety such as baptism,[web 19] fasting, reverence for the Torah, and observance of Jewish holy days.[141][142]

Baptism

Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings. It seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesus's disciples practised baptism. John the Baptist had baptized many people, before baptisms took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Paul likened baptism to being buried with Christ in his death.[note 14]

Communal meals and Eucharist

Early Christian rituals included communal meals.[143][144] The Eucharist was often a part of the Lovefeast, but between the latter part of the 1st century AD and 250 AD the two became separate rituals.[145][146][147] Thus, in modern times the Lovefeast refers to a Christian ritual meal distinct from the Lord's Supper.[148]

Liturgy

During the first three centuries of Christianity, the

Targums.[149]

At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, but within twenty years of Jesus' death, Sunday (the Lord's Day) was being regarded as the primary day of worship.[150]

Emerging church – mission to the Gentiles

With the start of their missionary activity, early Jewish Christians also started to attract proselytes, Gentiles who were fully or partly converted to Judaism.[151][note 15]

Growth of early Christianity

Aramaic,[155] but almost immediately also in Greek.[156]

The scope of the Jewish-Christian mission expanded over time. While Jesus limited his message to a Jewish audience in Galilee and Judea, after his death his followers extended their outreach to all of Israel, and eventually the whole Jewish diaspora, believing that the Second Coming would only happen when all Jews had received the Gospel.

]

According to Fredriksen, when early Christians broadened their missionary efforts, they also came into contact with Gentiles attracted to the Jewish religion. Eventually, the Gentiles came to be included in the missionary effort of Hellenised Jews, bringing "all nations" into the house of God.[1] The "Hellenists," Greek-speaking diaspora Jews belonging to the early Jerusalem Jesus-movement, played an important role in reaching a Gentile, Greek audience, notably at Antioch, which had a large Jewish community and significant numbers of Gentile "God-fearers."[151] From Antioch, the mission to the Gentiles started, including Paul's, which would fundamentally change the character of the early Christian movement, eventually turning it into a new, Gentile religion.[158] According to Dunn, within 10 years after Jesus' death, "the new messianic movement focused on Jesus began to modulate into something different ... it was at Antioch that we can begin to speak of the new movement as 'Christianity'."[159]

Christian groups and congregations first organized themselves loosely. In

Paul and the inclusion of Gentiles

Saint Paul, by El Greco

Conversion

Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other

Jewish Christians, but then converted. He adopted the name Paul and started proselytizing among the Gentiles, calling himself "Apostle to the Gentiles."[163][164]

Paul was in contact with the early Christian community in

James the Just.[165] According to Mack, he may have been converted to another early strand of Christianity, with a High Christology.[166] Fragments of their beliefs in an exalted and deified Jesus, what Mack called the "Christ cult," can be found in the writings of Paul.[165][note 18] Yet, Hurtado notes that Paul valued the linkage with "Jewish Christian circles in Roman Judea," which makes it likely that his Christology was in line with, and indebted to, their views.[168] Hurtado further notes that "[i]t is widely accepted that the tradition that Paul recites in 1 Corinthians 15:1-7 must go back to the Jerusalem Church."[169]

Inclusion of Gentiles

Rome
in the upper left.

Paul was responsible for bringing Christianity to

better source needed] According to Larry Hurtado, "Paul saw Jesus' resurrection as ushering in the eschatological time foretold by biblical prophets in which the pagan 'Gentile' nations would turn from their idols and embrace the one true God of Israel (e.g., Zechariah 8:20–23), and Paul saw himself as specially called by God to declare God's eschatological acceptance of the Gentiles and summon them to turn to God."[web 2]
According to Krister Stendahl, the main concern of Paul's writings on Jesus' role and salvation by faith is not the individual conscience of human sinners and their doubts about being chosen by God or not, but the main concern is the problem of the inclusion of Gentile (Greek) Torah-observers into God's covenant.[171][172][173][web 22] The inclusion of Gentiles into early Christianity posed a problem for the Jewish identity of some of the early Christians:
Abrahamic covenant, and the most traditionalist faction of Jewish Christians (i.e., converted Pharisees) insisted that Gentile converts had to be circumcised as well.[178][174][175][179][170]
By contrast, the rite of circumcision was considered execrable and repulsive during the period of Hellenization of the Eastern Mediterranean,[180][181][182][web 23] and was especially adversed in
Classical civilization both from ancient Greeks and Romans, which instead valued the foreskin positively.[180][181][182][183]

Paul objected strongly to the insistence on keeping all of the Jewish commandments,[170] considering it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith in Christ.[175][184] According to Paula Fredriksen, Paul's opposition to male circumcison for Gentiles is in line with the Old Testament predictions that "in the last days the gentile nations would come to the God of Israel, as gentiles (e.g., Zechariah 8:20–23), not as proselytes to Israel."[web 12] For Paul, Gentile male circumcision was therefore an affront to God's intentions.[web 12] According to Larry Hurtado, "Paul saw himself as what Munck called a salvation-historical figure in his own right", who was "personally and singularly deputized by God to bring about the predicted ingathering (the "fullness") of the nations (Romans 11:25)."[web 12]

For Paul, Jesus' death and resurrection solved the problem of the exclusion of Gentiles from God's covenant,[185][186] since the faithful are redeemed by participation in Jesus' death and rising. In the Jerusalem ekklēsia, from which Paul received the creed of 1 Corinthians 15:1–7, the phrase "died for our sins" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the Scriptures. For Paul, it gained a deeper significance, providing "a basis for the salvation of sinful Gentiles apart from the Torah."[187] According to E. P. Sanders, Paul argued that "those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape the power of sin [...] he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently live with him."[web 24] By this participation in Christ's death and rising, "one receives forgiveness for past offences, is liberated from the powers of sin, and receives the Spirit."[188] Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Second Temple Judaism of c. 200 BC until 200 AD, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God.[web 25]

These divergent interpretations have a prominent place in both Paul's writings and in Acts. According to Galatians 2:1–10 and Acts chapter 15, fourteen years after his conversion Paul visited the "Pillars of Jerusalem", the leaders of the Jerusalem ekklēsia. His purpose was to compare his Gospel[clarification needed] with theirs, an event known as the Council of Jerusalem. According to Paul, in his letter to the Galatians,[note 19] they agreed that his mission was to be among the Gentiles. According to Acts,[189] Paul made an argument that circumcision was not a necessary practice, vocally supported by Peter.[7][190][note 20]

While the Council of Jerusalem was described as resulting in an agreement to allow Gentile converts exemption from most

Luke-Acts, which is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah of the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it.[194]

Persecutions

Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire occurred frequently over a period of over two centuries. For most of the first three hundred years of Christian history, Christians had to hide their faith and, practice their beliefs in secret and rise to positions of responsibility so they weren't killed.[195] Persecutions took place as the result of the state authorizing others in power to take action against the Christians in their midst, who were thought to bring misfortune by their refusal to honour the gods ans challenge the infrastructure of an imperialist empire.[196]

Only for approximately ten out of the first three hundred years of the church's history were Christians executed due to orders from a Roman emperor.

Roman Emperors Constantine the Great and Licinius legalised the Christian religion, persecution of Christians by the Roman state ceased.[web 27]

Development of the Biblical canon

St. Clement I
, an Apostolic Father.

In an ancient culture before the

Liturgy of St James is traditionally associated with James the Just.[197]

Books not accepted by Pauline Christianity are termed biblical apocrypha, though the exact list varies from denomination to denomination.[citation needed]

Old Testament

The

Scriptures. The Koine Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures, later known as the Septuagint[198] and often written as "LXX," was the dominant translation from very early on.[web 28]

Perhaps the earliest Christian canon is the Bryennios List, dated to c. 100, which was found by Philotheos Bryennios in the Codex Hierosolymitanus. The list is written in Koine Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew.[199] In the 2nd century, Melito of Sardis called the Jewish scriptures the "Old Testament"[200] and also specified an early canon.[citation needed]

Jerome (347–420) expressed his preference for adhering strictly to the Hebrew text and canon, but his view held little currency even in his own day.[201]

New Testament

The

Aramaic primacy. They were not defined as "canon" until the 4th century. Some were disputed, known as the Antilegomena.[citation needed
]

Writings attributed to the

Early orthodox writings – Apostolic Fathers

The

Shepherd of Hermas are usually placed among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, although their authors are unknown.[citation needed
]

Taken as a whole, the collection is notable for its literary simplicity, religious zeal and lack of Hellenistic philosophy or rhetoric. They contain early thoughts on the organisation of the Christian ekklēsia, and are historical sources for the development of an early Church structure.[citation needed]

In his letter

1 Clement, Clement of Rome calls on the Christians of Corinth to maintain harmony and order.[203] Some see his epistle as an assertion of Rome's authority over the church in Corinth and, by implication, the beginnings of papal supremacy.[web 29] Clement refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in his letter as bishops and presbyters interchangeably, and likewise states that the bishops are to lead God's flock by virtue of the chief shepherd (presbyter), Jesus Christ.[citation needed
]

Ignatius of Antioch advocated the authority of the apostolic episcopacy (bishops).[204]

The Didache (late 1st century)[205] is an anonymous Jewish-Christian work. It is a pastoral manual dealing with Christian lessons, rituals, and Church organization, parts of which may have constituted the first written catechism, "that reveals more about how Jewish-Christians saw themselves and how they adapted their Judaism for Gentiles than any other book in the Christian Scriptures."[206]

Split of early Christianity and Judaism

A coin issued by Nerva reads
fisci Judaici calumnia sublata,
"abolition of malicious prosecution in connection with the Jewish tax"[207]

Split with Judaism

There was a slowly growing chasm between Gentile Christians, and Jews and Jewish Christians, rather than a sudden split. Even though it is commonly thought that Paul established a Gentile church, it took a century for a complete break to manifest. Growing tensions led to a starker separation that was virtually complete by the time Jewish Christians refused to join in the Bar Kokhba Jewish revolt of 132.[208] Certain events are perceived as pivotal in the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism.[citation needed]

The

Antioch became the first Gentile Christian community with stature.[209]

The hypothetical Council of Jamnia c. 85 is often stated to have condemned all who claimed the Messiah had already come, and Christianity in particular, excluding them from attending synagogue.[210][211][212][need quotation to verify] However, the formulated prayer in question (birkat ha-minim) is considered by other scholars to be unremarkable in the history of Jewish and Christian relations. There is a scarcity of evidence for Jewish persecution of "heretics" in general, or Christians in particular, in the period between 70 and 135. It is probable that the condemnation of Jamnia included many groups, of which the Christians were but one, and did not necessarily mean excommunication. That some of the later church fathers only recommended against synagogue attendance makes it improbable that an anti-Christian prayer was a common part of the synagogue liturgy. Jewish Christians continued to worship in synagogues for centuries.[210][212]

During the late 1st century, Judaism was a legal religion with the protection of

state pantheon.[213][214][215]

From c. 98 onwards a distinction between Christians and Jews in Roman literature becomes apparent. For example, Pliny the Younger postulates that Christians are not Jews since they do not pay the tax, in his letters to Trajan.[213][214]

Later rejection of Jewish Christianity

Jewish Christians constituted a separate community from the Pauline Christians but maintained a similar faith. In Christian circles, Nazarene later came to be used as a label for those faithful to Jewish Law, in particular for a certain sect. These Jewish Christians, originally the central group in Christianity, generally holding the same beliefs except in their adherence to Jewish law, were not deemed heretical until the dominance of orthodoxy in the 4th century.[216] The Ebionites may have been a splinter group of Nazarenes, with disagreements over Christology and leadership. They were considered by Gentile Christians to have unorthodox beliefs, particularly in relation to their views of Christ and Gentile converts. After the condemnation of the Nazarenes, Ebionite was often used as a general pejorative for all related "heresies".[217][218]

There was a post-Nicene "double rejection" of the Jewish Christians by both Gentile Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism. The true end of ancient Jewish Christianity occurred only in the 5th century.[219] Gentile Christianity became the dominant strand of orthodoxy and imposed itself on the previously Jewish Christian sanctuaries, taking full control of those houses of worship by the end of the 5th century.[216][note 22]

Timeline

1st century timeline

Earliest dates must all be considered approximate

See also

Notes

  1. English translations of the New Testament capitalize "the Way" (e.g. the New King James Version and the English Standard Version), indicating that this was how "the new religion seemed then to be designated"[web 3] whereas others treat the phrase as indicative—"the way",[10] "that way"[web 4] or "the way of the Lord".[web 5] The Syriac version reads, "the way of God" and the Vulgate Latin version, "the way of the Lord".[web 6]
    See also Sect of "The Way", "The Nazarenes" and "Christians": Names given to the Early Church
    .
  2. ^ The notion of Apocalyptic prophet is shared by E. P. Sanders,[44] a main proponent of the New Perspective on Paul, and Bart Ehrman.[web 10][web 11]
  3. ^ According to E. P. Sanders, Jesus's ideas on healing and forgiveness were in line with Second Temple Jewish thought and would not have been likely to provoke controversy among the Jewish authorities of his day."[45]
  4. ^ In a review of the state of research, Amy-Jill Levine stated that "no single picture of Jesus has convinced all, or even most scholars" and that all portraits of Jesus are subject to criticism by some group of scholars.[46]
  5. his first disciples who begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church.[47][49]
    The major Galilean ministry which begins in
    death of John the Baptist as Jesus prepares to go to Jerusalem.[52][53]
    In the later Judean ministry Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.[54][55][56][57] The final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called the
    Passion Week and begins with Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem.[58] The gospels provide more details about the final ministry than the other periods, devoting about one third of their text to the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.[59]
  6. ^ Sanders and Pelikan: "Besides presenting a longer ministry than do the other Gospels, John also describes several trips to Jerusalem. Only one is mentioned in the Synoptics. Both outlines are plausible, but a ministry of more than two years leaves more questions unanswered than does one of a few months."[web 9]
  7. ^ The Kingdom is described as both imminent (Mark 1:15) and already present in the ministry of Jesus (Luke 17:21) (Others interpret "Kingdom of God" to mean a way of living, or as a period of evangelization; no overall consensus among scholars has emerged on its meaning.[64][65]) Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message (Mark 10:13–27)
  8. Shaye J.D. Cohen, Jesus's failure to establish an independent Israel, and his death at the hands of the Romans, caused many Jews to reject him as the Messiah.[95]
    Jews at that time were expecting a military leader as a Messiah, such as Bar Kohhba.
  9. Jewish law
    which was being formalized at the same time
  10. ^ Acts 15 and Acts 21
  11. ^ Hurtado: "She refrains from referring to this earliest stage of the "Jesus-community" as early "Christianity" and comprisedof "churches," as the terms carry baggage of later developments of "organized institutions, and of a religion separate from, different from, and hostile to Judaism" (185). So, instead, she renders ekklēsia as "assembly" (quite appropriately in my view, reflecting the quasi-official connotation of the term, often both in the LXX and in wider usage)."[web 12]
  12. ^ See Why was Resurrection on "the Third Day"? Two Insights for explanations on the phrase "third day." According to Pinchas Lapide, "third day" may refer to Hosea 6:1–2:

    "Come, let us return to the Lord;
    for he has torn us, that he may heal us;
    he has struck us down, and he will bind us up.
    After two days he will revive us;
    on the third day he will raise us up,
    that we may live before him."

    See also 2 Kings 20:8: "Hezekiah said to Isaiah, 'What shall be the sign that the Lord will heal me, and that I shall go up to the house of the Lord on the third day?'"
  13. ^ Ehrman:
    * "The earliest Christians held exaltation Christologies in which the human being Jesus was made the Son of God—for example, at his resurrection or at his baptism—as we examined in the previous chapter."[134]
    * Here I'll say something about the oldest Christology, as I understand it. This was what I earlier called a "low" Christology. I may end up in the book describing it as a "Christology from below" or possibly an "exaltation" Christology. Or maybe I'll call it all three things [...] Along with lots of other scholars, I think this was indeed the earliest Christology.[web 17]
  14. ^ Romans 6:3–4; Colossians 2:12
  15. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte: "The English term "proselyte" occurs only in the New Testament where it signifies a convert to the Jewish religion (Matthew 23:15; Acts 2:11; 6:5; etc.), though the same Greek word is commonly used in the Septuagint to designate a foreigner living in Judea. The term seems to have passed from an original local and chiefly political sense, in which it was used as early as 300 BC, to a technical and religious meaning in the Judaism of the New Testament epoch."
  16. Greek colonies for the background]. Their language was Greek, their organization Greek, their writers Greek, their scriptures Greek; and many vestiges and traditions show that their ritual, their Liturgy, was Greek."[web 21]
  17. ^ Despite its mention of bishops, there is no clear evidence in the New Testament that supports the concepts of dioceses and monepiscopacy, i.e. the rule that all the churches in a geographic area should be ruled by a single bishop. According to Ronald Y. K. Fung, scholars point to evidence that Christian communities such as Rome had many bishops, and that the concept of monepiscopacy was still emerging when Ignatius was urging his tri-partite structure on other churches.[161]
  18. ^ According to Mack, "Paul was converted to a Hellenized form of some Jesus movement that had already developed into a Christ cult. [...] Thus his letters serve as documentation for the Christ cult as well."[167]
  19. ^ Four years after the Council of Jerusalem, Paul wrote to the Galatians about the issue, which had become a serious controversy in their region. There was a burgeoning movement of Judaizers in the area that advocated adherence to the Mosaic Law, including circumcision. According to McGrath, Paul identified James the Just as the motivating force behind the Judaizing movement. Paul considered it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith and addressed the issue with great detail in Galatians 3.[179]
  20. Marcion and his followers stated that the polemic against false apostles in Galatians was aimed at Peter, James and John, the "Pillars of the Church", as well as the "false" gospels circulating through the churches at the time. Irenaeus and Tertullian argued against Marcionism's elevation of Paul and stated that Peter and Paul were equals among the apostles. Passages from Galatians were used to show that Paul respected Peter's office and acknowledged a shared faith.[191][192]
  21. ^ Three forms are postulated, from Gamble, Harry Y, "18", The Canon Debate, p. 300, note 21, (1) Marcion's collection that begins with Galatians and ends with Philemon; (2) Papyrus 46, dated about 200, that follows the order that became established except for reversing Ephesians and Galatians; and (3) the letters to seven churches, treating those to the same church as one letter and basing the order on length, so that Corinthians is first and Colossians (perhaps including Philemon) is last.
  22. Elchasaites, and others) existed for some time, and a few of them seem to have endured for several centuries. Some sects saw in Jesus mainly a prophet and not the "Christ," others seem to have believed in him as the Messiah, but did not draw the christological and other conclusions that subsequently became fundamental in the teaching of the Church (the divinity of the Christ, trinitarian conception of the Godhead, abrogation of the Law). After the disappearance of the early Jewish Christian sects and the triumph of gentile Christianity, to become a Christian meant, for a Jew, to apostatize and to leave the Jewish community.[web 30]

References

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  48. p. 71
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  55. pp. 132–33
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  96. .
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  99. ^ Pagels 2005, p. 45.
  100. ^ Lüdemann & Özen 1996, p. 116.
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  107. ^ a b Dunn 2009, p. 277.
  108. ^ Burkett 2002.
  109. .
  110. , pp. 150–74
  111. , pp. 192–210
  112. , pp. 54–99
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  115. ^ O'Collins 1978, p. 112.
  116. ^ Hunter 1973, p. 100.
  117. ^ Pannenberg 1968, p. 90.
  118. ^ Cullmann 1966, p. 66.
  119. .
  120. ^ Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament vol 1, pp. 49, 81
  121. ^ Pannenberg 1968, pp. 118, 283, 367.
  122. ^ Ehrman 2014, p. 125.
  123. ^ Loke 2017.
  124. ^ Talbert 2011, pp. 3–6.
  125. ^ Ehrman 2014, pp. 120, 122.
  126. ^ Netland 2001, p. 175.
  127. ^ Loke 2017, p. 3.
  128. ^ Ehrman 2003.
  129. ^ a b c Bart Ehrman, How Jesus became God, Course Guide
  130. ^ Loke 2017, pp. 3–4.
  131. ^ Talbert 2011, p. 3.
  132. ^ Geza Vermez (2008), The Resurrection, pp. 138–39
  133. ^ Bird 2017, pp. ix, xi.
  134. ^ a b Ehrman 2014, p. 132.
  135. ^ Ehrman 2014, p. 122.
  136. ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 650.
  137. ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 155.
  138. ^ Dunn 2003.
  139. ^ .
  140. ^ White 2004, p. 127.
  141. ^ Ehrman 2005, p. 187.
  142. . For the early Christians, the agape signified the importance of fellowship. It was a ritual to celebrate the joy of eating, pleasure and company.
  143. . During the days of the Early Church, the believers would all gather together to share what was known as an agape feast, or "love feast." Those who could afford to bring food brought it to the feast and shared it with the other believers.
  144. . So strong were the overtones of the Eucharist as a meal of fellowship that in its earliest practice it often took place in concert with the Agape feast. By the latter part of the first century, however, as Andrew McGowan points out, this conjoined communal banquet was separated into "a morning sacramental ritual [and a] prosaic communal supper."
  145. . Agape (love feast), which ultimately became separate from the Eucharist...
  146. . Around AD 250 the lovefeast and Eucharist seem to separate, leaving the Eucharist to develop outside the context of a shared meal.
  147. .
  148. .
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  150. ^ a b Dunn 2009, p. 297.
  151. ^ a b c Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 281
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  153. ^ Franzen 1988, p. 29.
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  165. ^ Mack 1997, p. 109.
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  167. ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 168.
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  169. ^ Stendahl 1963.
  170. ^ Dunn 1982, p. n.49.
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  177. ^ a b McGrath 2006, pp. 174–75.
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    S2CID 29580193
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  181. epispasm
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  184. ^ Mack 1997, pp. 91–92.
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  194. ^ a b Croix 2006, pp. 105–52.
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  198. , p. 316
  199. . Retrieved 2021-01-31.
  200. . The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books was written by Jesus' own disciples.
  201. ^ a b Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972
  202. Smyrnaeans
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  218. , p. 246
  219. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus
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  220. , p. 251
  221. Lives of the Twelve Caesars
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  224. , The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula, pp. 254–56
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Sources

Printed sources

Web-sources

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  3. ^ "Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary on Acts 19". Bible Hub. Retrieved 2015-10-08. See also: Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary.
  4. American King James Version
  5. Douai-Rheims Bible
  6. ^ "Gill's Exposition, commentary on Acts 19:23". Bible Hub. Retrieved 2015-10-08.
  7. ^ Flusser, David. "Second Temple Period". Messiah. Encyclopaedia Judaica 2008 The Gale Group. Retrieved 2012-12-02.
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Further reading

Books

Book series

  • Dunn, James D.G. (2005), Christianity in the Making Volume 1: Jesus Remembered, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
  • Dunn, James D.G. (2009), Christianity in the Making Volume 2: Beginning from Jerusalem, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
  • Dunn, James D.G. (2009), Christianity in the Making Volume 3: Neither Jew nor Greek, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing

External links

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