Aqil Agha
Aqil Agha al-Hasi Beirut Vilayet, Ottoman Empire | |
---|---|
Buried | I'billin, Beirut Vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
Allegiance | Ottoman Empire |
Years of service | 1840–1844 1847–1852 1855–1863 1866–1870 |
Rank | Captain of Bashi-bazouk |
Unit | Hawwara/Hanadi Irregulars |
Battles/wars | Peasants' revolt in Palestine (1834) Hauran Rebellion (1852) Battle of Hattin (1857) |
Relations | Musa Agha al-Hasi (father) Salih Agha al-Hasi (brother) Ali al-Hasi (brother) Quwaytin Agha al-Aqili (son) |
Aqil Agha al-Hasi (
Throughout his rule, Aqil remained at least nominally in service to the Ottoman Empire, which paid him for protecting the roads of northern Palestine from Bedouin
While Palestine had been under Ottoman rule from the early 16th century, direct imperial administrative rule was challenged by a series of local leaders who exhibited vast influence over local affairs between the 17th and 19th centuries. With the Empire embroiled in the Crimean War, the power vacuum created in the area in the wake of Zahir al-Umar's rule in the Galilee (1730–1775), Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar's rule (1776–1804), and Muhammad Ali's rule (1831–1840), was filled by Aqil.[2] Aqil's demise represented the end of the last local obstacle to Ottoman centralization in Palestine.
Early life and family
Besides anecdotes provided in the writings of European consuls, most of the information on Aqil's life indirectly traces back to a history of the man written by Mikha'il Qa'war, a
Aqil's Hawwara tribesmen in the
Aqil's father,
Aqil's power base consisted of his tribesmen and alliances with other Bedouin tribes, who inhabited both sides of the
Strongman of the Galilee
Consolidation of influence
Like his father before him, Aqil served various masters, among whom was Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Muhammad Ali of Egypt.[3] Aqil defected from Ibrahim Pasha's army[1] and joined local rebels in the 1834 peasants' revolt against Egyptian conscription and disarmament measures, leading his Hawwara irregulars in the Galilee.[8] At some point during the revolt, Aqil helped save the mostly Druze village of Isfiya from being destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha's troops after its inhabitants paid Aqil for protection.[16] As the revolt was suppressed, Aqil and his men left Palestine for Transjordan, where they sought the protection of that region's major Bedouin tribes.[8] During his time in Transjordan he strengthened relations with these tribes.[17] When the Ottomans regained control of Palestine in 1840–1841, Aqil returned to the Lower Galilee and was commissioned as a captain of ten mounted irregulars.[18] He recruited Egyptian irregulars from the Hanadi tribe and others who were left unemployed following the Egyptian withdrawal. Together with Aqil's Hawwara, they became a formidable local force.[1] In 1843, Aqil became the chief of irregulars, known as bashi-bazouk, in northern Palestine,[3] and his command was expanded to fifty horsemen.[18] Aqil's irregulars became known in the area as the Hanadi, although the group's tribal composition was mixed.[1]
Aqil angered the
Aqil secured a durable alliance with the Beni Sakhr, consecrated through his marriage to a woman from the tribe. From Transjordan, he and his band of irregulars raided areas on both sides of the Jordan River until he was invited back to the Galilee by Acre's kaimakam in 1847.
Encounter with William F. Lynch
In 1848, Aqil assisted an expedition headed by
In this meeting, Said Bey had attempted to dissuade Lynch of his plans to travel to the Dead Sea, with Aqil remarking that the Bedouin of the Ghor (Jordan Valley) would "eat them up". Lynch's reply was that "they would find us difficult of digestion," but he suggested that as Aqil seemed to hold influence with these tribes, he would be prepared to pay him to make the trip a more peaceable one.[22]
After the meeting ended, Lynch pursued Aqil to speak with him alone. He showed him his sword and revolver, which Aqil examined and declared to be the "Devil's invention". Lynch described the weaponry at the disposal of his men and asked Aqil if he thought it sufficient to make the journey to the Jordan, and Aqil replied that, "You will, if anyone can." Lynch later secured Aqil's accompaniment on the trip to the Dead Sea, through the intervention of an ex-Sharif of Mecca, describing the latter as "our counsellor, sagacious and prudent," and Aqil as, "the bold warrior and the admirable scout."[22][23] Aqil and his Beni Sakhr allies quashed a party of Adwan Bedouin tribesmen when they attempted to rob Lynch's party. Lynch's record of Aqil's feat made him well known in Europe.[18]
Hauran rebellion, imprisonment and escape
Aqil's irregulars attracted the membership of local individuals and small clans. Along with his alliance with the two powerful tribes of the region, the Beni Sakhr and the
In 1852, he was commissioned by the Ottoman authorities to prevent the spread of a Druze rebellion from Hauran to northern Palestine. He successfully satisfied this request, aided by his Bedouin allies.[1][24] Among his assignments during the rebellion was the protection from Bedouin raiders of a supply route which the Ottomans used to send ammunition to their troops in Hauran. Aqil and his men accomplished the task successfully.[24]
Despite his successes during the Druze revolt, the authorities, with whom he always had a tense relationship, grew wary of his strength and subsequently arrested him in a nighttime raid.
Reinstatement and Battle of Hattin
At the time of Aqil's escape, the Ottomans were engaged in the
In Aqil's absence, a garrison of Kurdish irregulars based in Damascus had been left in charge of security in the Galilee.[24] They were commanded by Shamdin Agha,[25][26] but their employment was terminated by Aqil in 1855.[24] Meanwhile, scores of Bedouin tribesmen from Faiyum with kinship ties to Aqil's tribal irregulars had migrated to the Levant as a result of their suppression by Sa'id Pasha of Egypt. Aqil welcomed their membership into his tribal band and their numbers subsequently swelled. He consecrated his relationship with the new arrivals by marrying a daughter of one of their sheikhs.[24] In May 1856, he defeated the Abd al-Hadi clan of Arraba in a major clash that ended encroachments by the Abd al-Hadis on Aqil's territory.[27]
In 1857, the Beirut-based governor of Sidon Eyalet agreed to Shamdin's request to eliminate Aqil, who, to the consternation of the Ottoman authorities, was ruling the Galilee autonomously by that time. Shamdin, who sought vengeance against Aqil for terminating his service in the Galilee, had complained to the Sidon governor that Aqil was committing treachery by collaborating with the Bedouin tribes against Ottoman authority. The Ottomans, whose dependence on Aqil had decreased with the end of the Crimean War in 1856, found in Shamdin's request a convenient way to end Aqil's growing autonomy.[24] When Aqil visited Beirut to pay his respects to the governor of Sidon, he traveled with "the air of a sultan", according to the American missionary Henry H. Jessup, bringing with him a large and heavily armed Bedouin entourage.[28]
Shamdin's forces, amounting to 600–700 Kurdish irregulars, massed in Tiberias.[29] They were commanded by Shamdin's sons Muhammad Sa'id and Hasan Agha.[27] Curious at this deployment, Aqil had requested an explanation from the kaimakam of Acre, but received no response. Thus Aqil concluded that the deployment was part of a conspiracy to upend his rule. In response, Aqil assembled his entire force of irregulars, amounting to some 300–400 men, and marched towards Shamdin's troops. Other Arab tribes volunteered their service, but Aqil declined their participation.[29]
On 30 March, the Kurdish irregulars confronted Aqil's irregulars and Bedouin allies at the Horns of Hattin,[25][26] near the village of Hattin. For the most part, both sides were armed with swords and spears and to a lesser extent, rifles, rather than the modern weaponry at the Ottoman military's disposal.[30] Initially, the battle was going in Shamdin's favor and a portion of Aqil's troops began to flee. However, Salih Agha, Aqil's brother, led his group in a surprise attack against the Kurds.[29] As a result, Shamdin's forces were dealt a decisive blow and commander Hasan Agha was among the 150 fatalities of that battle.[25][26]
Aqil's victory entrenched his rule over the Galilee and afterward he established stronger relations with the Europeans.
1860 events and protection of Christians
Aqil had been previously courted by European powers to secure protection for their Christian and Jewish protégés.
In gratitude for protecting the
His protection of the local Christians and his reputed Algerian origins drew comparisons with
Decline of influence
The Ottoman imperial government adopted its Tanzimat modernization reforms in 1862 and originally entrusted Aqil with enforcing the new law of the land in northern Palestine. Part of these measures were stronger efforts to suppress the Bedouin tribes and decisively end their raiding activities. Aqil was given orders to prevent them from setting up camps in the cultivated lands of the Galilee and forbade the collection of khuwwa tolls from the local inhabitants. Aqil resigned from his post when he was informed that as part of his new assignment he and his men were required to don Ottoman uniforms. He objected to the requirement, insisting that as Bedouin, they were not accustomed to wearing uniforms. He was replaced by one of his Hawwara tribesmen, but Aqil compelled his successor to resign as well. Shortly after his resignation, the requirement of uniforms was canceled and Aqil resumed his assignment.[29]
Aqil's closeness with the Europeans disturbed the Ottomans. His relations with the kaimakam of Acre, who in 1863 was Hasan Effendi, were also deteriorating. Since his return to Palestine in 1854, he avoided setting foot in the city, instead assigning a resident representative who engaged the kaimakam on his behalf. Hasan Effendi lodged complaints to the provincial governor in Beirut, Kapuli Pasha, about the misconduct of Aqil's men who extorted the local
The Tanzimat proved unpopular with large segments of the population and a Bedouin revolt broke out,[1] with Transjordanian tribes launching raids against Tiberias and its countryside in the summer of 1863.[31] Aqil was unable to stop the raids,[31] and may have played a role in the revolt.[1] In response, the Ottomans dispatched a 2,000-strong, artillery-backed force from Damascus and Acre to Tiberias. The presence of artillery caused the Transjordanian tribes to retreat. Aqil viewed this deployment as an attack on his jurisdiction and issued his resignation in protest, all the while hoping Kapuli Pasha would back down and reject his resignation. To that end, he had Jewish notables from Tiberias and the French consul of Beirut lobby on his behalf, but without success, as Kapuli Pasha, content to see the elimination of a local power such as Aqil, accepted his resignation.[30]
After resigning, Aqil left the Galilee for Tell el-Hesi in the region of Gaza.[29] Around this time, Aqil married off a daughter of his to the leading Bedouin sheikh of the area, Rabbah al-Wahaidi.[38] Bedouin raiding, now with the participation of the smaller tribes of the Galilee, resumed not long after Aqil's resignation and concerns by the local merchants and European consuls were voiced to Kapuli Pasha due to the incoming harvest season for cotton and grain from the Galilee and Hauran. Hasan Effendi sought to stem the tide of looting by attempting to play one Bedouin tribe off of the other. Kapuli Pasha was doubtful of this policy's effectiveness and strove to use military force instead. He personally led a contingent of troops in the Galilee and ensured a peaceful harvest through the end of 1863. However, Kapuli Pasha determined that he could not keep a large, permanent military contingent in the Galilee and decided to reinstate Aqil to his former position after lobbying from the British consul of Haifa.[35]
Kapuli Pasha's successor, Kurshid Pasha, resumed the anti-Bedouin operations in the Galilee in 1864 and sought to establish in the eastern Galilee four heavily armed forts as a bulwark against further raiding.
Aqil later moved to Egypt. Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri and
Death and legacy
Aqil died in 1870, although his death was erroneously recorded by R. A. Stewart Macalister to have occurred in 1867.[35] According to Macalister, Aqil died in the vicinity of Shefa-Amr.[38] He was buried in I'billin, his previous Galilee headquarters.[1] As of the early 1980s, descendants of Aqil still inhabited I'billin.[39]
Aqil's son Quwaytin succeeded him as the chief of the Hanadi tribesmen who continued to inhabit the Galilee and its vicinity.
For nearly two decades Aqil had been a major local power in northern Palestine.
One of the factors Schölch attributes to Aqil's failure to secure an autonomous rule similar to that of the Arab sheikh Zahir al-Umar was Aqil's refusal to accept a sedentary life.[47] While I'billin frequently functioned as a headquarters of sorts for Aqil, he did not take up permanent residence there, or anywhere. Instead it served as a symbol of his authority in the Galilee.[19] Aqil was adamantly a Bedouin and once remarked to William Lynch that it would be a "disgrace" to "till the ground like a fellah".[39] The nomadic, marauding lifestyle of Aqil ran counter to the modernization efforts of the Ottomans, which strongly encouraged settlement of the land and centralization. These processes were eventually embraced by the peasantry and the urban notables, but resisted by the Bedouin tribes whose traditional livelihoods were at risk.[47]
Schölch asserts that Aqil contributed little to the socio-economic development of Palestine, and was not a "benefactor of the peasants".[48] However, Aqil is described in a mostly positive light by modern-day sources and in local tradition.[48] In the Arab nationalist political atmosphere that followed the Ottoman Empire's fall in 1917, Aqil's Arab identity and his struggles against the Ottomans contributed to the prevailing positive commemoration of his life. Palestinian Christians in particular remember him fondly for protecting Christians during his rule.[48]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Van Der Steen, "Case Study 1: Akila Agha".
- ^ Schölch, 1984, pp. 459–462.
- ^ a b c d e Schölch, 1984, p. 462.
- ^ a b c Schölch, 1993, p. 199.
- ^ a b Finn 1878, p. 414.
- ^ a b c Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 222
- ^ a b Abujaber, 1989, p. 35.
- ^ a b c d Mattar, 2005, p. 347.
- ^ Macalister and Masterman, 1906, pp. 222-223.
- ^ Rogers, 1865, p.196 ff.
- ^ Schölch, 1993, p. 201, note 576
- ^ Farley, 1858, p.317 ff.
- ^ Schölch, 1993, p. 206.
- ^ Saulcy, de 1872, Vol. 1, p.159
- ^ a b c Schölch, 1993, p.201
- ^ Trisdam, 1865, p. 112.
- ^ a b c Manna, ed. Mattar, 2005, p. 199.
- ^ a b c d e f Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 287
- ^ a b c Schölch, 1984, p. 463.
- ^ Lynch, 1849, p. 127
- ^ Finn 1878, p.415.
- ^ a b Finn 1878, pp. 416–418.
- ^ Lynch, 1850, p.130
- ^ a b c d e f g h Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 288.
- ^ a b c d The Third International Conference on Bilad Al-Sham: History of Palestine, vol. 19–20, University of Jordan, Yarmouk University, 1984, p. 119
- ^ a b c d Asian and African Studies, vol. 19–20, Jerusalem Academic Press, 1985, p. 298
- ^ a b Schölch, 1984, p. 466.
- ^ Jessup, 1910, pp. 273–274.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 289.
- ^ a b Schölch, 1984, p. 470.
- ^ a b c d Schölch, 1984, p. 49.
- ^ Finn 1878, p. 421
- ^ Mansour, 2004, p. 262
- ^ a b Schölch, 1984, p. 468.
- ^ a b c d e f g Schölch, 1984, p. 471.
- ^ Thomson, 1861, p.444
- ^ Finn 1878, p. 425
- ^ a b c Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 291
- ^ a b Schölch, 1984, p. 464.
- ^ Shumacher, 1889, p. 86.
- ^ Abujaber, 1989, p. 36
- ^ Abujaber, 1989, p. 268.
- ^ a b c Schölch, 1993, pp. 207–208
- ^ a b c Schölch, 1984, p. 465.
- ^ Schölch, 1984, pp. 472–473.
- ^ Yazbak, 1998, p. 3
- ^ a b Schölch, 1984, p. 472.
- ^ a b c Schölch, 1984, p. 473.
Bibliography
- Abujaber, Raouf Sa'd (1989). Pioneers Over Jordan: The Frontier Settlement in Transjordan, 1850–1914. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-116-9.
- Van Der Steen, Eveline (1989). Near Eastern Tribal Societies During the Nineteenth Century: Economy, Society and Politics Between Tent and Town. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-54347-3.
- Farley, James Lewis (1858). Two years in Syria. Saunders and Otley.
- Finn, James (1877). Byeways in Palestine. London: James Nisbet.(p.79, ff)
- Finn, James (1878). Elizabeth A. Finn (ed.). Stirring Times, or, Records from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles of 1853 to 1856. Edited and Compiled by His Widow E. A. Finn. With a Preface by the Viscountess Strangford. Vol. 1. London: C.K. Paul & co.(p.414-p.432)
- Jessup, Henry Harris (1910). Fifty-three Years in Syria. Vol. 1. Fleming H. Revell Company.
- Lynch, William F. (1849). Narrative of the United States' Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. London: Richard Bentley.
- .
- ISBN 9780816069866.
- Mansour, Atallah (2004). Narrow Gate Churches: The Christian Presence in the Holy Land Under Muslim and Jewish rule. Pasadena: Hope Publishing House. ISBN 1-932717-02-1.
- Rogers, Mary Eliza (1865). Domestic life in Palestine. Cincinnati: Poe & Hitchcock.
- Saulcy, Louis Félicien de (1853). Narrative of a journey round the Dead Sea, and in the Bible lands, in 1850 and 1851. Vol. 1. London: R. Bentley.
- Schumacher, Gottlieb (1889). Abila of the Decapolis. Society's office.
- Schölch, Alexander (1984). "The Decline of Local Power in Palestine after 1856: The Case of ʿAqīl Aġā". Die Welt des Islams. New Series. 23 (1/4). BRILL: 458–475. JSTOR 1570684.
- Schölch, Alexander (1993). Palestine in Transformation, 1856–1882: Studies in Social, Economic, and Political Development. ISBN 0-88728-234-2.
- Thomson, William McClure (1859). The Land and the Book: Or, Biblical Illustrations Drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy Land. Vol. 1 (1 ed.). New York: Harper & brothers.
- Tristram, H.B. (1865). Land of Israel, A Journal of travel in Palestine, undertaken with special reference to its physical character. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. (pp. 120, 419, 420, 449, 452, 498)
- ISBN 90-04-11051-8.
- Zenner, Walter P. (1972). "Aqiili Agha: The Strongman in the Ethnic Relations of the Ottoman Galilee". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 14 (2): 169–188. S2CID 143550599.