Muslim conquest of the Levant
Muslim conquest of the Levant | |||||||||
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Part of the Arab–Byzantine wars | |||||||||
Scene of the Roman Theatre at Palmyra, 2005 | |||||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||||
Rashidun Caliphate |
Byzantine Empire Ghassanids Tanukhids | ||||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
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The Muslim conquest of the Levant (
Roman Syria
During the
Syria was mostly made up of
The Byzantine Emperor
The 7th century was a time of rapid military change in the Byzantine Empire. The empire was certainly not in a state of collapse when it faced the new challenge from
Rise of the Caliphate
Military confrontations with the
After the
Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the
Expedition to Syria
After successful campaigns against the Sassanids and the ensuing conquest of
- Elat route, then across Valley of Arabah.
- route.
- Shurahbil ibn Hasana: Objective Jordan. Move on Tabuk route after Yazid.
- Emesa. Move on Tabuk route after Shurahbil.
Not knowing the precise position of the Byzantine army, Abu Bakr ordered that all corps should remain in touch with each other so that they could render assistance if the Byzantines were able to concentrate their army in any operational sector. In case the corps had to concentrate for one major battle, Abu Ubaidah was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the entire army.[11] In the first week of April 634, the Muslim forces began to move from their camps outside Medina. The first to leave was Yazid's corps, followed by Shurahbil, Abu Ubaidah and Amr, each a day's march from the other. Abu Bakr walked for a short distance by the side of each corps commander. His parting words which he repeated to each of the corps commanders, were as follows:
In your march be not hard on yourself or your army. Be not harsh with your men or your officers, whom you should consult in all matters. Be just and abjure evil and tyranny, for no nation which is unjust prospers or achieves victory over its enemies. When you meet the enemy turn not your back on him; for whoever turns his back, except to manoeuvre for battle or to regroup, earns the wrath of Allah. His abode shall be hell, and what a terrible place it is! And when you have won a victory over your enemies, don't kill women or children or the aged and do not slaughter beasts except for eating. And break not the pacts which you make.[12] You will come upon a people who live like hermits in monasteries, believing that they have given up all for God. Let them be and destroy not their monasteries. And you will meet other people who are partisans of Satan and worshippers of the Cross, who shave the centre of their heads so that you can see the scalp. Assail them with your swords until they submit to Islam or pay the Jizya. I entrust you to the care of Allah.[13]
Conquest of Syria
Initial phase
Moving to their assigned target beyond Tabouk, Yazid's corps made contact with a small
Khalid immediately set out for Syria from
Southern Syria
Here Khalid took over the command of the Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, according to the instructions of the Caliph. Massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to the desert. Early Muslim sources claim the Byzantine strength to have been 90,000, although most modern historians doubt the figures, yet consider this battle to be the key to breaking Byzantine power in Syria. On Khalid's instructions, all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they won a decisive battle against the Byzantines on 30 July.
This defeat left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus, Thomas, son-in-law of Emperor Heraclius, was in charge. Having received intelligence of Khalid's march towards Damascus, he prepared for its defence, writing to Emperor Heraclius in Emesa for reinforcements. Moreover, Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of a siege, sent armies to delay or, if possible, halt Khalid's march to Damascus. One of these armies was defeated at the
Conquest under Caliph Umar
Dismissal of Khalid from command
On 22 August, Abu Bakr, the first caliph, died, having made Umar his successor. Umar's first move was to relieve Khalid from command and appoint
Abu Ubaidah moved more slowly and steadily, which had a concomitant effect on military operations in Syria. Abu Ubaidah, being an admirer of Khalid, made him commander of the cavalry and relied heavily on his advice during the whole campaign.[18]
Conquest of the Central Levant
Soon after the appointment of Abu-Ubaidah as commander in chief, he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu-al-Quds, modern day Ablah, near Zahlé 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of Beirut. There was a Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison nearby, but the size of the garrison was miscalculated by the Muslim informants. The garrison quickly encircled the small Muslim detachment, but before it was completely destroyed, Khalid came to the rescue of the Muslim army. Abu Ubaidah, having received new intelligence, had sent Khalid. Khalid reached the battlefield and defeated the garrison on 15 October and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners. By capturing central Syria, the Muslims had given a decisive blow to the Byzantines. The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off. Abu Ubaidah decided to march to
Conquest of Palestine
History of Palestine |
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Next, the Muslim armies consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper into Palestine.
According to lexicographer David ben Abraham al-Fasi (died before 1026 CE), the Muslim conquest of Palestine brought relief to the country's Jewish citizens, who had previously been barred by the Byzantines from praying on the Temple Mount.[21]
Battles for Emesa and Second Battle of Damascus
After the battle, which proved to be the key to Palestine and Jordan, the Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr's corps moved south to capture Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with a relatively larger corps, moved north to conquer Northern Syria. While the Muslims were occupied at Fahl, Heraclius, sensing an opportunity, quickly sent an army under General Theodras to recapture Damascus, where a small Muslim garrison was left. Shortly thereafter, the Muslims, having just won the Battle of Fahl, were on their way to Emesa. In the meantime, the Byzantine army split in two, one deployed at Maraj al Rome (Beqaa Valley) led by Schinos; the other, commanded by Theodras, stationed to the west of Damascus (Al-Sabboura region).[22][23]
During the night, Theodras advanced to Damascus to launch a surprise attack. Khalid's spy informed him about the move and Khalid, having received permission from Abu Ubaidah, galloped towards Damascus with his mobile guard. While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in the Battle of Marj ar-Rum, Khalid moved to Damascus with his cavalry and attacked and defeated Theodras there.[23][22] A week later, Abu Ubaida himself moved towards Heliopolis, where the great Temple of Jupiter stood.[24]
In May 636, Heliopolis surrendered to the Muslims after little resistance and agreed to pay tribute. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid straight towards
Battle of Yarmouk
After capturing Emesa, Khalid moved north to capture Northern Syria, using his cavalry as an advance guard and raiding force. At Shaizar, Khalid intercepted a convoy taking provisions for Chalcis. The prisoners were interrogated and informed him about Emperor Heraclius' ambitious plan to take back Syria with an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong. Khalid immediately ended the raid.
After his past experiences, Heraclius now avoided pitched battle with the Muslim army. His plans were to send massive reinforcements to all the major cities, isolate the Muslim corps from each other, and then separately encircle and destroy the Muslim armies.
Part of his plan was to coordinate his attacks with those of
Five massive armies were launched in June to recapture Syria. Khalid, having grasped Heraclius' plan, feared that the Muslim armies would become isolated and then destroyed piecemeal. He thus suggested to Abu Ubaidah in a council of war that he consolidate all the Muslim armies at one place to force a decisive battle with the Byzantines. Abu Ubaidah agreed, and concentrated them at
The Muslim armies reached the plain in July. A week or two later, around mid-July, the Byzantine army arrived. The Byzantine commander-in-chief, Vahan, sent Ghassanid forces, under their king, Jabala, to gauge the Muslim strength. Khalid's mobile guard defeated and routed them, the last action before the battle started. For one month negotiations continued between the two armies and Khalid went to meet Vahan in person at the Byzantine camp. Meanwhile, Muslim reinforcements arrived from Umar.
Abu Ubaidah, in another council of war, transferred field command of the Muslim army to Khalid. Finally, on 15 August, the
Meanwhile, Umar occupied Yazdegerd III in a grand deception.[
Capturing Jerusalem
With the Byzantine army routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured the territory they had conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high commanders, including Khalid, and decided to conquer
Conquest of northern Syria
With Emesa already in hand, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towards
Abu Ubaidah soon joined Khalid at Chalcis, which surrendered some time in June. With this strategic victory, the territory north of Chalcis lay open to the Muslims. Khalid and Abu Ubaidah continued their march northward and laid
Byzantine counterattack
After the devastating defeat at Yarmouk, the remainder of the Byzantine empire was left vulnerable. With few military resources left, it was no longer in a position to attempt a military comeback in Syria. To gain time to prepare a defense of the rest of his empire, Heraclius needed the Muslims occupied in Syria. He thus sought help from the Christians (some of whom were Arabs) of
In 638, Muslims attacked
On the orders of Umar, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, commander of the Muslim army in Iraq, sent an army under Iyad ibn Ghanm to conquer the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates up to Urfa. In 639–640, Raqqa fell into Muslim hands,[29] followed by most of Jazirah, the last base of the Eastern Roman Empire in the region, which surrendered peacefully and agreed to pay Jizya.
Campaigns in Armenia and Anatolia
The conquest of Jazirah was completed by 640 CE, after which Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm (conqueror of Jazirah) to invade Byzantine territory north of there. They marched independently and captured
Umar then called a halt to the expedition and ordered Abu Ubaidah, now governor of Syria, to consolidate his rule there. This decision can be explained by the dismissal of Khalid from the army, which ended his military career, and a drought followed by a plague the year after.
Under Caliph Uthman's reign
During the reign of
In 645–646, Sufyan bin Mujib Al-Azdi, appointed by Muawiyah, managed to seize Tripoli to eventually capture the last Byzantine stronghold on the Levantine coast.[31]
Uthman gave permission to Muawiyah to build a navy. From their base in Syria, the Muslims used this fleet to capture
Administration under the Rashidun Caliphate
The new rulers divided Syria into four districts (junds): Jund Dimashq (Damascus), Jund Hims, Jund al-Urdunn (Jordan), and Jund Filastin (Palestine) (to which a fifth, Jund Qinnasrin, was later added)[32] and the Arab garrisons were kept apart in camps, and life went on much as before for the local population. The Muslims tolerated the Jews and Christians. The taxes instituted were the kharaj, which landowners and peasants paid according to the productivity of their fields, and the jizya, paid by non-Muslims in return for state protection and exemption from military service. The Byzantine civil service was retained until a new system could be instituted; therefore, Greek remained the administrative language in the new Muslim territories for over 50 years after the conquests.
Rise of the Umayyads
When the first
See also
- Spread of Islam
- Muslim conquests
- Byzantine-Arab Wars
- Ghassanids
- Iudaea Province
- Umayyad conquest of North Africa
- 7th century in Lebanon § Administration
- History of Lebanon
- History of Syria
- History of Jordan
- History of Palestine
- History of the Levant
Notes
Footnotes
- ^ Sharon, M. (2007). "The decisive battles in the Arab Conquest of Syria". Studia Orientalia Electronica. Vol. 101. pp. 297–358.
- ^ "Syria." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 October 2006 Syria – Britannica Online Encyclopedia Archived 14 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Kaegi, 1995, p. 41.
- ^ "Ghassan." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 October 2006 Ghassan (ancient kingdom, Arabia) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
- ^ a b "Iran." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 October 2006 Iran – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
- ^ Nicolle, David (1994). Yarmuk CE 636: The Muslim Conquest of Syria. Osprey Publishing.
- ^ El Hareir & M'Baye 2011, p. 142.
- ^ a b Buhl 1993, pp. 756–757.
- ^ Kaegi 1992, p. 67.
- ^ Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. p. 283.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7101-0104-4.
- ^ Waqidi: p. 4.
- ISBN 978-1-312-23371-3.
- ^ Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 601
- ISBN 978-1-312-23371-3.
- ^ Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 609
- ^ Waqidi: p. 62.
- ^ Akram, chapter 31.
- ISBN 978-93-85505-66-9.
- ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
- ^ Al-Fasi, D. (1936). Solomon L. Skoss (ed.). The Hebrew-Arabic Dictionary of the Bible, Known as 'Kitāb Jāmiʿ al-Alfāẓ' (Agron) (in Hebrew). Vol. 1. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. xxxix–xl (Introduction).
- ^ a b Tabari 1992, p. 174.
- ^ a b Akram 2006, p. 359-417.
- ^ Allenby 2003.
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 382.
- ^ Tabari: Vol. 3, p. 98.
- ^ Regan 2003, p. 167
- ^ Tabari: Vol. 4, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Meinecke 1995, p. 410.
- ^ a b "Umar (634–644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. Last accessed 20 Oct 2006 Archived 10 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ سيد بن حسين العفاني (2005). فرسان النهار من الصحابة الأخيار – ج5 (in Arabic). مكتبة الكيان. pp. 309–311.
- OCLC 1004386. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
References
- Betts, Robert B. (1978). Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study (2nd rev. ed.). Athens: Lycabettus Press. ISBN 978-0-8042-0796-6.
- ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9.
- ISBN 978-0-88141-056-3.
- Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
- OCLC 495469456.
External links
- Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary. The Islamic World to 1600: Tutorial Outline
- Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Chapter 51
- Bishop John Nikiou The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu Chapters CXVI-CXXI