Dromedary
Dromedary | |
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Dromedary in a wadi on the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt | |
Domesticated
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Artiodactyla |
Family: | Camelidae |
Genus: | Camelus |
Species: | C. dromedarius
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Binomial name | |
Camelus dromedarius | |
range of the dromedary in 2000 | |
Synonyms[1] | |
List
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The dromedary (Camelus dromedarius
It is the tallest of the three species of camel; adult males stand 1.8–2.4 m (5 ft 11 in – 7 ft 10 in) at the shoulder, while females are 1.7–1.9 m (5 ft 7 in – 6 ft 3 in) tall. Males typically weigh between 400 and 690 kg (880 and 1,520 lb), and females weigh between 300 and 540 kg (660 and 1,190 lb).
The species' distinctive features include its long, curved neck, narrow chest, a single hump (compared with two on the
Dromedaries are mainly active during daylight hours. They form herds of about 20 individuals, which are led by a
The dromedary has not occurred naturally in the wild for nearly 2,000 years. It was probably first
Etymology
The common name "dromedary" comes from the
Taxonomy and classification
Phylogenetic relationships of the dromedary from combined analysis of all molecular data[12] |
The dromedary shares the
In 2007, Peng Cui of the
The dromedary and the Bactrian camel often interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Where the ranges of the species overlap, such as in northern Punjab, Persia, and Afghanistan, the
Genetics and hybrids
The dromedary has 74
Camel hybridization began in the first millennium BC.
Evolution
The extinct Protylopus, which occurred in North America during the upper Eocene, is the oldest and the smallest-known camel.[24] During the transition from Pliocene to Pleistocene, several mammals faced extinction. This period marked the successful radiation of the Camelus species, which migrated over the Bering Strait and dispersed widely into Asia, eastern Europe and Africa.[25][26] By the Pleistocene, ancestors of the dromedary occurred in the Middle East and northern Africa.[27]
The modern dromedary probably evolved in the hotter, arid regions of western Asia from the Bactrian camel, which in turn was closely related to the earliest Old World camels.
In 1975, Richard Bulliet of Columbia University wrote that the dromedary exists in large numbers in areas from which the Bactrian camel has disappeared; the converse is also true to a great extent. He said this substitution could have taken place because of the heavy dependence on the milk, meat and wool of the dromedary by Syrian and Arabian nomads, while the Asiatic people domesticated the Bactrian camel but did not have to depend upon its products.[29]
Characteristics
The dromedary is the tallest of the three camel species. Adult males range in height between 1.8 and 2.4 m (5.9 and 7.9 ft) at the shoulder;[30][31] females range between 1.7 and 1.9 m (5.6 and 6.2 ft). Males typically weigh between 400 and 690 kg (880 and 1,520 lb);[31] females range between 300 and 540 kg (660 and 1,190 lb). The distinctive features are its long, curved neck, narrow chest and single hump (the Bactrian camel has two), thick, double-layered eyelashes and bushy eyebrows.[20] They have sharp vision and a good sense of smell.[9] The male has a soft palate (dulaa in Arabic) nearly 18 cm (7.1 in) long, which he inflates to produce a deep pink sac. The palate, which is often mistaken for the tongue, dangles from one side of the mouth and is used to attract females during the mating season.[32]
The
Compared with the Bactrian camel, the dromedary has a lighter build, longer limbs, shorter hairs, a harder palate and an insignificant or absent
Anatomy
The
The dromedary has 22
The skin is black; the
The heart weighs around 5 kg (11 lb); it has two
Reproductive system
The
The
Health and diseases
The dromedary generally suffers from fewer diseases than other domestic livestock such as goats and cattle.[56] Temperature fluctuations occur throughout the day in a healthy dromedary – the temperature falls to its minimum at dawn, rises until sunset and falls during the night.[57] Nervous camels may vomit if they are carelessly handled; this does not always indicate a disorder. Rutting males may develop nausea.[17]
The dromedary is prone to
In 2013, a seroepidemiological study (a study investigating the patterns, causes and effects of a disease on a specific population on the basis of
Fleas and ticks are common causes of physical irritation.
Ecology
The dromedary is diurnal (active mainly during daylight); free-ranging herds feed and roam throughout the day, though they rest during the hottest hours around noon. The night is mainly spent resting. Dromedaries form cohesive groups of about 20 individuals, which consist of several females led by a dominant male. Females may also lead in turns.[20] Some males either form bachelor groups or roam alone.[68] Herds may congregate to form associations of hundreds of camels during migrations at the time of natural disasters. The males of the herd prevent female members from interacting with bachelor males by standing or walking between them and sometimes driving the bachelor males away. In Australia, short-term home ranges of feral dromedaries cover 50 to 150 km2 (19 to 58 sq mi); annual home ranges can spread over several thousand square kilometres.[20]
Special behavioral features of the dromedary include snapping at others without biting them and showing displeasure by stamping their feet. They are generally non-aggressive, with the exception of rutting males. They appear to remember their homes; females, in particular, remember the places they first gave birth or suckled their offspring.[20] Males become aggressive in the mating season, and sometimes wrestle. A 1980 study showed androgen levels in males influences their behavior. Between January and April when these levels are high during the rut, they become difficult to manage, blow out the palate from the mouth, vocalize and throw urine over their backs.[69] Camels scratch parts of their bodies with their legs or with their lower incisors. They may also rub against tree bark and roll in the sand.[20]
Free-ranging dromedaries face large predators typical of their regional distribution, which includes wolves, lions[67] and tigers.[35]
Diet
The dromedary's diet consists mostly of foliage, dry grasses and desert vegetation – mostly thorny plants.[70] A study said the typical diet of the dromedary is dwarf shrubs (47.5%), trees (29.9%), grasses (11.2%), other herbs (0.2%) and vines (11%).[71] The dromedary is primarily a browser; forbs and shrubs comprise 70% of its diet in summer and 90% of its diet in winter. The dromedary may also graze on tall, young, succulent grasses.[72]
In the Sahara, 332 plant species have been recorded as food plants of the dromedary. These include
Biology
Adaptations
The dromedary is specially adapted to its desert habitat; these adaptations are aimed at conserving water and regulating body temperature. The bushy eyebrows and the double row of eyelashes prevent sand and dust from entering the eyes during strong windstorms, and shield them from the sun's glare.[73] The dromedary is able to close its nostrils voluntarily; this assists in water conservation.[67] The dromedary can conserve water by reducing perspiration by fluctuating the body temperature throughout the day from 31 to 41.7 °C (87.8 to 107.1 °F). The kidneys are specialized to minimize water loss through excretion. Groups of camels avoid excess heat from the environment by pressing against each other. The dromedary can tolerate greater than 30% water loss, which is generally impossible for other mammals. In temperatures between 30 and 40 °C (86 and 104 °F), it needs water every 10 to 15 days. In the hottest temperatures, the dromedary takes water every four to seven days. This camel has a quick rate of rehydration and can drink at 10–20 L (2.2–4.4 imp gal) per minute.[20] The dromedary has a rete mirabile, a complex of arteries and veins lying very close to each other which uses countercurrent blood flow to cool blood flowing to the brain. This effectively controls the temperature of the brain.[74]
The hump stores up to 80 lb (36 kg) of fat, which the camel can break down into energy to meet its needs when resources are scarce; the hump also helps dissipate body heat.[75] When this tissue is metabolized, through fat metabolization, it releases energy while causing water to evaporate from the lungs during respiration (as oxygen is required for the metabolic process): overall, there is a net decrease in water.[76][77] If the hump is small, the animal can show signs of starvation. In a 2005 study, the mean volume of adipose tissues (in the external part of the hump that have cells to store lipids) is related to the dromedary's unique mechanism of food and water storage.[78] In case of starvation, they can even eat fish and bones, and drink brackish and salty water.[9] The hair is longer on the throat, hump and shoulders. Though the padded hooves effectively support the camel's weight on the ground,[79] they are not suitable for walking on slippery and muddy surfaces.[20]
Reproduction
Camels have a slow growth rate and reach sexual maturity slower than sheep or goat.[80] The age of sexual maturity varies geographically and depends on the individual, as does the reproductive period. Both sexes might mature by three to five years of age, though successful breeding could take longer. Camels are described as atypical seasonal breeders; they exhibit spermatogenesis throughout the whole year with a reduction in spermatogenesis during the nonbreeding season compared to that in the breeding season (Zayed et al., 1995). The breeding season in Egypt is during spring; the spring months.[81] Mating occurs once a year, and peaks in the rainy season. The mating season lasts three to five months, but may last a year for older animals.[17][82]
During the reproductive season, males splash their urine on their tails and nether regions. To attract females they extrude their soft palate – a trait unique to the dromedary.
A single calf is born after a gestation period of 15 months. Calves move freely by the end of their first day. Nursing and maternal care continue for one to two years. In a study to find whether young could exist on milk substitutes, two male, month-old camels were separated from their mothers and were fed on milk substitutes prepared commercially for lambs, and they grew to normal weights for male calves after 30 days.[86] Lactational yield can vary with species, breed, individual, region, diet, management conditions and lactating stage.[87] The largest quantity of milk is produced during the early period of lactation.[17] The lactation period can vary between nine and eighteen months.[88]
Dromedaries are
Range
Its range included hot, arid regions of northern Africa, Ethiopia, the Near East, and western and central Asia.[95] The dromedary typically thrives in areas with a long dry season and a short wet season.[96] They are sensitive to cold and humidity,[41] though some breeds can thrive in humid conditions.[96]
The dromedary may have been first domesticated in Somalia or the Arabian Peninsula about 4,000 years ago.
Dromedaries were also shipped from south-western Asia to Spain, Italy, Turkey, France, Canary Islands, the Americas and Australia.[17] Dromedaries were introduced into Spain in 1020 AD and to Sicily in 1059 AD.[104] Camels were exported to the Canary Islands in 1405 during the European colonisation of the area, and are still extant there, especially in Lanzarote and to the south of Fuerteventura.[104] Attempts to introduce dromedaries into the Caribbean, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil were made between the 17th and 19th centuries; some were imported to the western United States in the 1850s and some to Namibia in the early 1900s, but presently they exist in small numbers or are absent in these areas.[33]
In 1840, about six camels were shipped from Tenerife to Adelaide, but only one survived the journey to arrive on 12 October that year. The animal, a male called Harry, was owned by the explorer John Ainsworth Horrocks. Harry was ill-tempered but was included in an expedition the following year because he could carry heavy loads. The next major group of camels were imported into Australia in 1860, and between 1860 and 1907 10 to 12 thousand were imported. These were used mainly for riding and transport.[105][106]
Current distribution of captive animals
In the early 21st century, the domesticated dromedary is found in the semi-arid to arid regions of the Old World.[96]
Africa
Africa has more than 80% of the world's total dromedary population; it occurs in almost every desert zone in the northern part of the continent. The Sahel marks the southern extreme of its range, where the annual rainfall is around 550 mm (22 in). The Horn of Africa has nearly 35% of the world's dromedaries;[96] most of the region's stock is in Somalia, followed by Sudan, Eritrea, and Ethiopia (as of the early 2000s).[107] According to the Yearbook of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) for 1984, eastern Africa had about 10 million dromedaries, the largest population of Africa. Western Africa followed with 2.14 million, while northern Africa had nearly 0.76 million.[108] Populations in Africa increased by 16% from 1994 to 2005.[107][109]
Asia
In Asia, nearly 70% of the population occurs in India and Pakistan. The combined population of the dromedary and the Bactrian camel decreased by around 21% between 1994 and 2004.[110] The dromedary is sympatric with the Bactrian camel in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and central and southwestern Asia.[111] India has a dromedary population of less than one million, with most (0.67 million) in the state of Rajasthan.[107] Populations in Pakistan decreased from 1.1 million in 1994 to 0.8 million in 2005 – a 29% decline.[110] According to the FAO, the dromedary population in six countries of the Persian Gulf was nearly 0.67 million in 2003. In the Persian Gulf region the dromedary is locally classified into breeds including Al-Majahem, Al-Hamrah, Al-Safrah, Al-Zarkah and Al-Shakha, based on coat colour. The UAE has three prominent breeds: Racing camel, Al-Arabiat and Al-Kazmiat.[112]
Feral population
Feral dromedary populations occur in Australia, where they were introduced in 1840.[113] The total dromedary population in Australia was 500,000 in 2005. Nearly 99% of the populations are feral, and they have annual growth rate of 10%.[107] Most of the Australian feral camels are dromedaries, with only a few Bactrian camels. Most of the dromedaries occur in Western Australia, with smaller populations in the Northern Territory, Western Queensland and northern South Australia.[107]
Feral dromedary populations notwithstanding, the wild dromedary camel as opposed to the now domesticated species has been functionally extinct from the wild for the past 2,000 years.[114]
Relationship with humans
The strength and docility of the dromedary make it popular as a domesticated animal.
Camel urine and camel milk are used for medicinal purposes.[116]
Riding camels
Although the role of the camel is diminishing with the advent of technology and modern means of transport, it is still an efficient mode of communication in remote and less-developed areas. The dromedary has been used in warfare since the 6th century BC.[117] It is particularly prized for its capability to outrun horses in the deserts.[118] Record of its use during the time of Alexander the Great indicate that the animal could cover up to 50 miles per day for a week and they could go for up to a month without water.[119] An account by Aurelian also cited that, in her escape to Euphrates, Zenobia used a dromedary to outrun her pursuers after she was defeated at Palmyra.[120]
The dromedary also remains popular for racing, particularly in the Arab world.[17] Riding camels of Arabia, Egypt and the Sahara are locally known as the Dilool, the Hageen, and the Mehara respectively; several local breeds are included within these groups.[33]
The ideal riding camel is strong, slender and long-legged with thin, supple skin. The special adaptations of the dromedary's feet allow it to walk with ease on sandy and rough terrain and on cold surfaces.
According to Leese, the dromedary walks with four speeds or gaits: walk, jog, fast run and canter. The first is the typical speed of walking, around 4 km/h (2.5 mph). Jog is the most common speed, nearly 8–12 km/h (5.0–7.5 mph) on level ground. He estimated a speed of 14–19 km/h (8.7–11.8 mph) during a fast run, by observing northern African and Arabian dromedaries. He gave no speed range to describe the
The ideal age to start training dromedaries for riding is three years,[45] although they may be stubborn and unruly.[123] At first the camel's head is controlled, and it is later trained to respond to sitting and standing commands, and to allow mounting.[33] At this stage a camel will often try to escape when a trainer tries to mount it.[17] The next stage involves training it to respond to reins. The animal must be given loads gradually and not forced to carry heavy loads before the age of six.[33] Riding camels should not be struck on their necks, rather they should be struck behind the right leg of the rider.[45] Leese described two types of saddles generally used in camel riding: the Arabian markloofa used by single riders and the Indian pakra used when two riders mount the same camel.[33]
Baggage and draught camels
The baggage camel should be robust and heavy. Studies have recommended the camel should have either a small or a large head with a narrow aquiline nose, prominent eyes and large lips. The neck should be medium to long so the head is held high. The chest should be deep and the hump should be well-developed with sufficient space behind it to accommodate the saddle. The hindlegs should be heavy, muscular and sturdy.[124] The dromedary can be trained to carry baggage from the age of five years, but must not be given heavy loads before the age of six.[125] The hawia is a typical baggage saddle from Sudan.[124] The methods of training the baggage camels are similar to those for riding camels.[17]
Draught camels are used for several purposes including ploughing, processing in oil mills and pulling carts. There is no clear description for the ideal draught camel, though its strength, its ability to survive without water and the flatness of its feet could be indicators.[17] It may be used for ploughing in pairs or in groups with buffaloes or bullocks.[33] The draught camel can plough at around 2.5 km/h (1.6 mph), and should not be used for more than six hours a day – four hours in the morning and two in the afternoon.[123] The camel is not easily exhausted unless diseased or undernourished, and has remarkable endurance and hardiness.[26]
Dairy products
Camel milk is a staple food of nomadic tribes living in deserts. It consists of 11.7% solids, 3% protein, 3.6% fat, 0.8%
Daily milk yield generally varies from 3.5 to 35 kg (7.7 to 77.2 lb) and from 1.3% to 7.8% of the body weight.[128] Milk yield varies geographically and depends upon the animals' diet and living conditions.[17] At the peak of lactation, a healthy female would typically provide 9 kg (20 lb) milk per day.[26] Leese estimated a lactating female would yield 4 to 9 L (0.88 to 1.98 imp gal) besides the amount ingested by the calf.[33] The Pakistani dromedary, which is considered a better milker and bigger, can yield 9.1–14.1 kg (20–31 lb) when well-fed.[129] Dromedaries in Somalia may be milked between two and four times a day,[88] while those in Afar, Ethiopia, may be milked up to seven times a day.[130]
The acidity of dromedary milk stored at 30 °C (86 °F) increases at a slower rate than that of cow milk.[20] Though the preparation of butter from dromedary milk is difficult, it is produced in small amounts by nomads, optimized at 22.5% fat in the cream.[131] In 2001, the ability of dromedary milk to form curd was studied; coagulation did not show curd formation, and had a pH of 4.4. It was much different from curd produced from cow milk, and had a fragile, heterogeneous composition probably composed of casein flakes.[132] Nevertheless, cheese and other dairy products can be made from camel milk. A study found bovine calf rennet could be used to coagulate dromedary milk.[133] A special factory has been set up in Nouakchott to pasteurise and make cheese from camel milk.[134] Mystical beliefs surround the use of camel milk in some places; for example, it may be used as an aphrodisiac in Ethiopia.[135]
Meat
The meat of a five-year-old dromedary has a typical composition of 76% water, 22% protein, 1% fat, and 1% ash.[90] The carcass, weighing 141–310 kg (311–683 lb) for a five-year-old dromedary,[90] is composed of nearly 57% muscle, 26% bone and 17% fat.[136] A seven-to-eight-year-old camel can produce a carcass of 125–400 kg (276–882 lb). The meat is bright red to a dark brown or maroon, while the fat is white. It has the taste and texture of beef.[136] A study of the meat of Iranian dromedaries showed its high glycogen content, which makes it taste sweet like horse meat. The carcasses of well-fed camels were found to be covered with a thin layer of good quality fat.[137] In a study of the fatty acid composition of raw meat taken from the hind legs of seven one-to-three years old males, 51.5% of the fatty acids were saturated, 29.9% mono-unsaturated, and 18.6% polyunsaturated. The major fatty acids in the meat were palmitic acid (26.0%), oleic acid (18.9%) and linoleic acid (12.1%). In the hump, palmitic acid was dominant (34.4%), followed by oleic acid (28.2%), myristic acid (10.3%) and stearic acid (10%).[138]
Dromedary slaughter is more difficult than the slaughter of other domestic livestock such as cattle because of the size of the animal and the significant manual work involved. More males than females are slaughtered.[139] Though less affected by mishandling than other livestock, the pre-slaughter handling of the dromedary plays a crucial role in determining the quality of meat obtained; mishandling can often disfigure the hump.[140] The animal is stunned, seated in a crouching position with the head in a caudal position and slaughtered.[139] The dressing percentage – the percentage of the mass of the animal that forms the carcass – is 55–70%,[90] more than the 45–50% of cattle.[17] Camel meat is often eaten by African camel herders, who use it only during severe food scarcity or for rituals.[17] Camel meat is processed into food items such as burgers, patties, sausages and shawarma.[136] Dromedaries can be slaughtered between four and ten years of age. As the animal ages, the meat grows tougher and deteriorates in taste and quality.[17] In Somalian and Djiboutian culture, the dromedary is a staple food and can be found in many recipes and dishes.
A 2005 report issued jointly by the
Camel hair, wool and hides
Camels in hot climates generally do not develop long coats. Camel hair is light, and has low
See also
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{{cite journal}}
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External links
- "Camelus dromedarius". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
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