Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
Medieval Islamic astronomy comprises the
Islamic astronomy played a significant role in the revival of ancient astronomy following the
A significant number of stars in the sky, such as Aldebaran, Altair and Deneb, and astronomical terms such as alidade, azimuth, and nadir, are still referred to by their Arabic names. A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, many of which have not been read or catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.
History
Pre-Islamic Arabs
The Islamic historian
Early period
The first astronomical texts that were translated into
Ptolemy’s Almagest (a geocentric spherical Earth cosmic model) was translated at least five times in the late eighth and ninth centuries,[4] which was the main authoritative work that informed the Arabic astronomical tradition.[5]
The rise of
Astronomical methods
The
Golden Age
The House of Wisdom was an academy established in Baghdad under Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun in the early 9th century. Astronomical research was greatly supported by al-Mamun through the House of Wisdom.[citation needed]
The first major Muslim work of astronomy was Zij al-Sindhind, produced by the mathematician
Doubts on Ptolemy
In 850, the
By the 10th century, texts had appeared that doubted that Ptolemy's works were correct.
The 10th century Egyptian astronomer Ibn Yunus found errors in Ptolemy's calculations. Ptolemy calculated that the Earth's angle of axial precession varied by one degree every 100 years. Ibn Yunus calculated the rate of change to be one degree every 701⁄4 years.[citation needed]
Between 1025 and 1028, the
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi also exposed problems present in Ptolemy's work. In 1261, he published his Tadkhira, which contained 16 fundamental problems he found with Ptolemaic astronomy,[14] and by doing this, set off a chain of Islamic scholars that would attempt to solve these problems. Scholars such as Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, Ibn al-Shatir, and Shams al-Din al-Khafri all worked to produce new models for solving Tusi's 16 Problems,[15] and the models they worked to create would become widely adopted by astronomers for use in their own works.
Nasir al-Din Tusi wanted to use the concept of Tusi couple to replace the "equant" concept in Ptolemic model. Since the equant concept would result in the moon distance to change dramatically through each month, at least by the factor of two if the math is done. But with the Tusi couple, the moon would just rotate around Earth resulting in the correct observation and applied concept.[16] Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi was another engineer/scholar that tried to make sense of the motion of planets. He came up with the concept of lemma, which is a way of representing the epicyclical motion of planets without using Ptolemic method. Lemma was intended to replace the concept of equant as well.
Earth rotation
His contemporary,
The fact that some people did believe that the earth is moving on its own axis is further confirmed by an Arabic reference work from the 13th century which states:
According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the earth is in a constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars.[19]
At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories, the Earth's rotation was discussed by Najm al-Din al-Qazwini al-Katibi (d. 1277),[22] Tusi (b. 1201) and Qushji (b. 1403). The arguments and evidence used by Tusi and Qushji resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion.[23][24] However, it remains a fact that the Maragha school never made the big leap to heliocentrism.[25]
Alternative geocentric systems
In the 12th century, non-heliocentric alternatives to the Ptolemaic system were developed by some Islamic astronomers in al-Andalus, following a tradition established by
A notable example is
Later period
In the late 13th century, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi created the Tusi couple, as pictured above. Other notable astronomers from the later medieval period include Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi (c. 1266), Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (c. 1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (c. 1347), Ibn al-Shatir (c. 1375), and Ali Qushji (c. 1474).[30]
In the 15th century, the Timurid ruler Ulugh Beg of Samarkand established his court as a center of patronage for astronomy. He studied it in his youth, and in 1420 ordered the construction of Ulugh Beg Observatory, which produced a new set of astronomical tables, as well as contributing to other scientific and mathematical advances.[31]
Several major astronomical works were produced in the early 16th century, including ones by Al-Birjandi (d. 1525 or 1526) and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (fl. 1525). However, the vast majority of works written in this and later periods in the history of Islamic sciences are yet to be studied.[24]
Influences
Africa
Islamic astronomy influenced Malian astronomy.[32]
Europe
Several works of Islamic astronomy were translated to Latin starting from the 12th century.
The work of al-Battani (d. 929), Kitāb az-Zīj ("Book of Astronomical Tables"), was frequently cited by European astronomers and received several reprints, including one with annotations by Regiomontanus.[33] Nicolaus Copernicus, in his book that initiated the Copernican Revolution, the De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, mentioned al-Battani no fewer than 23 times,[34] and also mentions him in the Commentariolus.[35] Tycho Brahe, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and others frequently cited him or his observations.[36] His data is still used in geophysics.[37]
Around 1190,
Some historians maintain that the thought of the Maragheh observatory, in particular the mathematical devices known as the
While the influence of the criticism of Ptolemy by
It has been argued that Copernicus could have independently discovered the Tusi couple or took the idea from Proclus's Commentary on the First Book of Euclid,[51] which Copernicus cited.[52]
Another possible source for Copernicus's knowledge of this mathematical device is the Questiones de Spera of Nicole Oresme, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al-Tusi.[53]
China
Islamic influence on Chinese astronomy was first recorded during the
Islamic astronomers were brought to China in order to work on calendar making and astronomy during the Mongol Empire and the succeeding Yuan dynasty.[55] The Chinese scholar Yeh-lu Chu'tsai accompanied Genghis Khan to Persia in 1210 and studied their calendar for use in the Mongol Empire.[55] Kublai Khan brought Iranians to Beijing to construct an observatory and an institution for astronomical studies.[56]
Several Chinese astronomers worked at the Maragheh observatory, founded by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in 1259 under the patronage of
Some of the astronomical instruments constructed by the famous Chinese astronomer
Hongwu Emperor (r. 1368–1398) of the Ming dynasty (1328–1398), in the first year of his reign (1368), conscripted Han and non-Han astrology specialists from the astronomical institutions in Beijing of the former Mongolian Yuan to Nanjing to become officials of the newly established national observatory.
That year, the Ming government summoned for the first time the astronomical officials to come south from the upper capital of Yuan. There were fourteen of them. In order to enhance accuracy in methods of observation and computation, Hongwu Emperor reinforced the adoption of parallel calendar systems, the Han and the Hui. In the following years, the Ming Court appointed several Hui astrologers to hold high positions in the Imperial Observatory. They wrote many books on Islamic astronomy and also manufactured astronomical equipment based on the Islamic system.
The translation of two important works into Chinese was completed in 1383: Zij (1366) and al-Madkhal fi Sina'at Ahkam al-Nujum, Introduction to Astrology (1004).
In 1384, a Chinese astrolabe was made for observing stars based on the instructions for making multi-purposed Islamic equipment. In 1385, the apparatus was installed on a hill in northern Nanjing.
Around 1384, during the Ming dynasty, Hongwu Emperor ordered the Chinese translation and compilation of Islamic astronomical tables, a task that was carried out by the scholars Mashayihei, a Muslim astronomer, and Wu Bozong, a Chinese scholar-official. These tables came to be known as the Huihui Lifa (Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy), which was published in China a number of times until the early 18th century,[62] though the Qing dynasty had officially abandoned the tradition of Chinese-Islamic astronomy in 1659.[63] The Muslim astronomer Yang Guangxian was known for his attacks on the Jesuit's astronomical sciences.
Korea
In the early Joseon, the Islamic calendar served as a basis for calendar reform being more accurate than the existing Chinese-based calendars.[64] A Korean translation of the Huihui Lifa, a text combining Chinese astronomy with Islamic astronomy works of Jamal ad-Din, was studied in Joseon Korea during the time of Sejong the Great in the 15th century.[65]
Observatories
The first systematic observations in Islam are reported to have taken place under the patronage of al-Mamun. Here, and in many other private observatories from Damascus to Baghdad,
During the 10th century, the
It was
The most influential observatory was however founded by
In 1420, prince Ulugh Beg, himself an astronomer and mathematician, founded another large observatory in Samarkand, the remains of which were excavated in 1908 by Russian teams.
And finally,
As observatory development continued, Islamicate scientists began to pioneer the planetarium. The major difference between a planetarium and an observatory is how the universe is projected. In an observatory, you must look up into the night sky, on the other hand, planetariums allow for universes planets and stars to project at eye-level in a room. Scientist Ibn Firnas, created a planetarium in his home that included artificial storm noises and was completely made of glass. Being the first of its kind, it very similar to what we see for planetariums today.
Instruments
Our knowledge of the instruments used by Muslim astronomers primarily comes from two sources: first the remaining instruments in private and museum collections today, and second the treatises and manuscripts preserved from the Middle Ages. Muslim astronomers of the "Golden Period" made many improvements to instruments already in use before their time, such as adding new scales or details.
Celestial globes and armillary spheres
Astrolabes
Brass astrolabes were an invention of Late Antiquity. The first Islamic astronomer reported as having built an astrolabe is
The device was incredibly useful, and sometime during the 10th century it was brought to Europe from the Muslim world, where it inspired Latin scholars to take up a vested interest in both math and astronomy.[71] Despite how much we know much about the tool, many of the functions of the device have become lost to history. Although it is true that there are many surviving instruction manuals, historians have come to the conclusion that there are more functions of specialized astrolabes that we do not know of.[72] One example of this is an astrolabe created by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in Aleppo in the year 1328/29 C.E. This particular astrolabe was special and is hailed by historians as the "most sophisticated astrolabe ever made",[72] being known to have five distinct universal uses.
The largest function of the astrolabe is it serves as a portable model of space that can calculate the approximate location of any heavenly body found within the solar system at any point in time, provided the latitude of the observer is accounted for. In order to adjust for latitude, astrolabes often had a second plate on top of the first, which the user could swap out to account for their correct latitude.[71] One of the most useful features of the device is that the projection created allows users to calculate and solve mathematical problems graphically which could otherwise be done only by using complex spherical trigonometry, allowing for earlier access to great mathematical feats.[73] In addition to this, use of the astrolabe allowed for ships at sea to calculate their position given that the device is fixed upon a star with a known altitude. Standard astrolabes performed poorly on the ocean, as bumpy waters and aggressive winds made use difficult, so a new iteration of the device, known as a Mariner's astrolabe, was developed to counteract the difficult conditions of the sea.[74]
The instruments were used to read the time of the Sun rising and fixed stars. al-Zarqali of Andalusia constructed one such instrument in which, unlike its predecessors, did not depend on the latitude of the observer, and could be used anywhere. This instrument became known in Europe as the Saphea.[75]
The astrolabe was arguably the most important instrument created and used for astronomical purposes in the medieval period. Its invention in early medieval times required immense study and much trial and error in order to find the right method of which to construct it to where it would work efficiently and consistently, and its invention led to several mathematic advances which came from the problems that arose from using the instrument.[76] The astrolabe's original purpose was to allow one to find the altitudes of the sun and many visible stars, during the day and night, respectively.[77] However, they have ultimately come to provide great contribution to the progress of mapping the globe, thus resulting in further exploration of the sea, which then resulted in a series of positive events that allowed the world we know today to come to be.[78] The astrolabe has served many purposes over time, and it has shown to be quite a key factor from medieval times to the present.
The astrolabe required the use of mathematics, and the development of the instrument incorporated azimuth circles, which opened a series of questions on further mathematical dilemmas.[76] Astrolabes served the purpose of finding the altitude of the sun, which also meant that they provided one the ability to find the direction of Muslim prayer (or the direction of Mecca).[76] Aside from these purposes, the astrolabe had a great influence on navigation, specifically in the marine world. This advancement made the calculation of latitude simpler, which led to an increase in sea exploration, and indirectly led to the Renaissance revolution, an increase in global trade activity, and ultimately the discovery of several of the world's continents.[78]
Mechanical calendar
Abu Rayhan Biruni designed an instrument he called "Box of the Moon", which was a mechanical lunisolar calendar, employing a gear train and eight gear-wheels.[79] This was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing machine.[80] This work of Al Biruni uses the same gear trains preserved in a 6th century Byzantine portable sundial.[81]
Sundials
Muslims made several important improvements[
Sundials were frequently placed on mosques to determine the time of prayer. One of the most striking examples was built in the 14th century by the muwaqqit (timekeeper) of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, ibn al-Shatir.[83]
Quadrants
Several forms of quadrants were invented by Muslims. Among them was the sine quadrant used for astronomical calculations, and various forms of the horary quadrant used to determine the time (especially the times of prayer) by observations of the Sun or stars. A center of the development of quadrants was 9th century Baghdad.[84] Abu Bakr ibn al-Sarah al-Hamawi (d. 1329) was a Syrian astronomer that invented a quadrant called “al-muqantarat al-yusra”. He devoted his time to writing several books on his accomplishments and advancements with quadrants and geometrical problems. His works on quadrants include Treatise on Operations with the Hidden Quadrant and Rare Pearls on Operations with the Circle for Finding Sines. These instruments could measure the altitude between a celestial object and the horizon. However, as Muslim astronomers used them, they began to find other ways to use them. For example, the mural quadrant, for recording the angles of planets and celestial bodies. Or the universal quadrant, for latitude solving astronomical problems. The horary quadrant, for finding the time of day with the sun. The almucantar quadrant, which was developed from the astrolabe.
Equatoria
Planetary equatoria were probably made by ancient Greeks, although no findings nor descriptions have been preserved from that period. In his comment on Ptolemy's Handy Tables, 4th century mathematician Theon of Alexandria introduced some diagrams to geometrically compute the position of the planets based on Ptolemy's epicyclical theory. The first description of the construction of a solar (as opposed to planetary) equatorium is contained in Proclus's 5th century work Hypotyposis,[85] where he gives instructions on how to construct one in wood or bronze.[86]
The earliest known description of a planetary equatorial is contained in early 11th century treatise by
Astronomy in Islamic art
Examples of cosmological imagery in Islamic art can be found in objects such as manuscripts, astrological tools, and palace frescoes, and the study of the heavens by Islamic astronomers has translated into artistic representations of the universe and astrological concepts.[87] The Islamic world gleaned inspiration from Greek, Iranian, and Indian traditions to represent the stars and the universe.[88]
The
The Islamic zodiac and astrological visuals can be seen in examples of metalwork. Ewers depicting the twelve zodiac symbols exist in order to emphasize elite craftsmanship and carry blessings such as one example now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.[90] Coinage also carried zodiac imagery that bears the sole purpose of representing the month in which the coin was minted.[91] As a result, astrological symbols could have been used as both decoration, and a means to communicate symbolic meanings or specific information.
Notable astronomers
This article needs additional citations for verification. (March 2024) |
Some of the below are from Hill (1993), Islamic Science And Engineering'.[92]
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See also
References
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We can also see Muslim influence in the official calendars of the late Goryeo period. After they gained control of China, the Mongols invited Arab astronomers to Beijing to correct mistakes that had crept into Chinese calculations of the movements of the sun, the moon, the five visible planets, and the stars. Those Muslim scientists brought with them the latest astronomical instruments as well as mathematical tools for predicting heavenly movements based on what those instruments revealed. The Korean government then sent their own astronomers to Beijing to learn from those Muslims. Even though there was nothing particularly religious about the calendar those Muslim scientists produced for East Asia, it became known unofficially as the Muslim Calendar. The government in both China and Korea continued to use Muslim calendrical techniques until the 16th century, when Christian missionaries from Europe brought even more advanced instruments and calculating techniques to China.
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Further reading
- Ajram, K. (1992), "Appendix B", Miracle of Islamic Science, Knowledge House Publishers, ISBN 978-0-911119-43-5
- Kennedy, Edward S. (1998). Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-86078-682-5.
- Gill, M. (2005), Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?, archived from the original on 2 January 2008, retrieved 2008-01-22
- .
- Hassan, Ahmad Y., Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering, archived from the originalon 18 February 2008, retrieved 2008-01-22
- King, David A. (1983), "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", S2CID 144315162
- King, David A. (1986), Islamic mathematical astronomy, ISBN 978-0-86078-407-4
- ISBN 978-90-04-14188-9
- Lindberg, D.C., and M. H. Shank, eds. The Cambridge History of Science. Volume 2: Medieval Science (Cambridge UP, 2013), chapter 4 covers astronomy in Islam.
- Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996), ISBN 978-0-415-12410-2
- S2CID 122647517
- ISBN 978-0-8147-8023-7.
- Saliba, George (1999). "Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?". Columbia University. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
- S2CID 57562913
External links
- Scientific American article on Islamic Astronomy (archived 18 December 2005)
- The Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences (AUASS)
- King Abdul Aziz Observatory (archived 7 July 2007)
- History of Islamic Astrolabes. Archived 2016-08-12 at the Wayback Machine.
- Al-Sufi's constellations