Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
UNESCO World Heritage Site | |
---|---|
Location | Thessaloniki, Greece |
Part of | Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki |
Criteria | Cultural: i, ii, iv |
Reference | 456-002 |
Inscription | 1988 (12th Session) |
Area | 0.587 ha |
Coordinates | 40°38′00″N 22°57′10.5″E / 40.63333°N 22.952917°E |
The Arch of Galerius (
History
The 4th-century Roman emperor Galerius commissioned these two structures as elements of an imperial precinct linked to his Thessaloniki palace. Archeologists have found substantial remains of the palace to the southwest.[2] These three monumental structures were connected by a road that ran through the arch, which rose above the major east–west road of the city.
At the crux of the major axes of the city, the Arch of Galerius emphasized the power of the emperor and linked the monumental structures with the fabric of 4th-century Thessaloniki. The arch was composed of a masonry core faced with
The Rotunda was a massive circular structure with a masonry core that had an oculus like the Pantheon in Rome. It has gone through multiple periods of use and modification as a polytheist temple, a Christian basilica, a Muslim mosque, and again a Christian church (and archaeological site). A minaret is preserved from its use as a mosque, and ancient remains are displayed on its southern side.
At some point, the knowledge of why the arch was constructed and who it was dedicated to was lost, as the arch simply depicts scenes from the triumph over the Persians and does not directly name Galerius. By the time of Ottoman rule of the region as part of Salonica vilayet in the 19th century, the arch was loosely speculated to be dedicated to one of the famous rulers people were familiar with - Constantine the Great, Philip II of Macedon, and Alexander the Great. It was sometimes called the "Arch of Philip", "Arc du Constantin", and equivalents during this period. Karl Frederik Kinch examined the arch in 1880s, and published a monograph in 1890 identifying that the arch was dedicated to Galerius.[3]
In late 1864, when Frenchman Emmanuel Miller arrived in the city with the aim to remove and take to France the portico known as Las Incantadas the population of the city loudly objected, and the public outcry grew even more intense when false rumours spread that Miller also intended to dismantle and remove the Arch of Galerius as well; the arch was not touched at all or taken (but Las Incantadas was).[4]
Location and description of the Arch
The Arch of Galerius stands on what is now the intersection of
The structure was an
Only the northwestern three of the eight pillars and parts of the masonry cores of the arches above survive: i.e., the entire eastern side (four pillars) and the southernmost one of the western pillars are lost.[6] Extensive consolidation with modern brick has been performed on the exposed masonry cores to protect the monument. The two pillars flanking the central arched passageway retain their sculpted marble slabs, which depict the wars of Galerius against the Persians in broadly panegyric terms.
Sculptural program of the Arch
Understanding of the sculptural program of the arch is limited by the loss of the majority of the marble panels, but the remains give an impression of the whole. Four vertically stacked registers of sculpted decoration were carved on each pillar, each separated by elaborate moldings. A label for the
The relief of the imperial family conjoined in a sacrifice of thanksgiving owes its distant prototype to the Augustan reliefs on the Ara Pacis in Rome.[citation needed] Galerius' wife, Diocletian's daughter Valeria, is shown at his side, helping authenticate his connection to his predecessor. Here as elsewhere all the faces have been carefully chiselled off, whether as damnatio memoriae or in later cultural intolerance of images.
In another panel, the tetrarchs are all arrayed in the toga as a Victoria holds a victory wreath out to the heads of the two Augusti. A third panel celebrates the unity of the
What remains of the arch asserts the glory of the tetrarchy and the prominence of Galerius within that system. The arch celebrates the Roman Empire as part of Galerius' victory over the Sassanid king.[citation needed] Galerius is also pictured on his horse at the right, while attacking a Sassanid guard.
Rotunda of Galerius
Location and description of the Rotunda
The Rotunda of Galerius, also known as the Rotunda of Saint George, is 125 m (410 ft) northeast of the Arch of Galerius at 40°37'59.77"N, 22°57'9.77"E. It is also known (by its consecration and use) as the Greek Orthodox Church of Agios Georgios, and is informally called the Church of the Rotunda (or simply The Rotunda).
The cylindrical structure was built around 306 AD on the orders of the tetrarch Galerius, who was thought to have intended it to be his mausoleum. Its circular, centrally planned structure resembles other structures such as Santa Costanza in Rome and is similarly topped by a dome. The structure was converted into a church in the late fourth century and an apsidal choir extension was added as well as a wide ambulatory around the perimeter.[7]
The Rotunda has a diameter of 24.5 m. Its walls are more than 6 m thick, which is why it has withstood Thessaloniki's earthquakes. The walls are interrupted by eight rectangular bays, with the west bay forming the entrance. A flat brick dome, 30 m high at the peak, crowns the cylindrical structure. In its original design, the dome of the Rotunda had an oculus, as does the Pantheon in Rome.
Uses of the Rotunda
After Galerius's death in 311, he was buried at Felix Romuliana (
The building was used as a church (Church of Asomaton or Archangelon) for over 1,200 years until the city fell to the
The Rotunda is the oldest of Thessaloniki's churches. Some Greek publications claim it is the oldest Christian church in the world, although there are competitors for that title. It is the most important surviving example of a church from the early Christian period of the Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire.
Mosaics of the Rotunda
The Rotunda's cupola and the barrel vaults were originally entirely covered in mosaics, many of which are now lost. The surviving mosaics depict many organic forms such as a garland of fruit and
See also
Footnotes
- ^ "Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki". UNESCO World Heritage Convention. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
- ^ The palace of Galerius was built on a massive scale using primarily local materials. It may have been built over the destruction layer of a fire that cleared an area. Expansive areas of mosaic are preserved in several areas. A structure linked to the palace and called the Octagonal Room is at the southwest end of the excavated area at 40°37'48.53"N, 22°56'55.99"E; thought at one point to be a mausoleum, it may have been a monumental entryway to the palace. Beside the palace to the northeast was a hippodrome.
- hdl:1956/23717.
- ISBN 9780007120222.
- ^ At this point Galerius was a Caesar (subordinate emperor); he became one of the two Augusti (head emperors) in 305 AD, when Diocletian abdicated.
- ^ The other parts of the structure were destroyed at an unknown date, probably during one of many earthquakes, which have damaged Thessaloniki throughout its history.
- ^ OCLC 959266684.
- S2CID 170780866.
Notes
The arch
- Dyggve, E. (Copenhagen, 1945). "Recherches sur le palais imperial de Thessalonique".
- Engemann, J. (JAC 22, 1979). "Akklamationsrichtung, Sieger- und Besiegtenrichtung auf dem Galeriusbogen in Saloniki".
- Garrucci, P. (W. Wylie, trans.). (NC 10, 1870). "Brass Medallion Representing the Persian Victory of Maximianus Galerius".
- Hébrard, E. (BCH 44, 1920). "L'Arc de Galère & l'église Saint-Georges à Salonique".
- Kinch, K. F. (Paris, 1890). "L'arc de triomphe de Salonique".
- Laubscher, H. P. (Berlin, 1975). "Der Reliefschmuck des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki".
- Makaronas, C. J. (Salonica, 1970). The Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki.
- Meyer, H. (JdI 95, 1980). "Die Frieszyklen am sogenannten Triumphbogen des Galerius in Thessaloniki".
- Pond Rothman, M. S. (AJA 81, 1977). "The Thematic Organization of the Panel Reliefs on the Arch of Galerius".
- Pond Rothman, M. S. (Byzantine Studies/Etudes Byzantines 2:1, 1975). "The Panel of the Emperors Enthroned on the Arch of Galerius".
- Sutherland, C. H. V. (London, 1967), RIC IV: From Diocletian's Reform (A.D. 294) to the Death of Maximinus (A. D. 313)
- Velenis, G. (AA, 1979). "Architektonische Probleme des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki".
- Velenis, G. (AA, 1983). "Nachträgliche Beobachtungen am Oberbau des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki".
- Vermeule, C. C. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1968). "Roman Imperial Art in Greece and Asia Minor".
- von Schönebeck, H. (BZ 37, 1937). "Die zyklische Ordnung der Triumphalreliefs am Galeriusbogen in Saloniki".
- von Schönebeck, H. (JbBerlMus 58, 1937). (Preserves image of the now lost head of Galerius, possibly from the large Arch of Galerius. The relief head was in Berlin.)
The palace
- Αθανασιου, Φ. et al. (ΑΕΜΘ 8, 1994). "Νεα στοιχεια για το Οκταγωνο του γαλεριανου συγκροτηματος".
- Αθανασιου, Φ. et al. (Θεσσαλονικεων πολις 3, 1981). "τα ανακτορα του Γαλεριου στη Θεσσαλονικη, Μεθοδολογια αποκαταστασης".
- Αθανασιου, Φ. et al. (Θεσσαλονικεων πολις 4, 2001). "Το λουτρα του ανακτορικου συγκροτηματος του Γαλεριου".
- Dyggve, E. (Copenhagen, 1945). "Recherches sur le palais imperial de Thessalonique".
- Dyggve, E. (Dissertationes Pannonicae ser. 2, 11, 1941). "Kurzer vorläufiger Bericht über die Ausgrabungen im Palastviertel von Thessaloniki".
- Hébrard, E. (BCH 44, 1920). "Les Travaux du Service archéologique d'Armée d'Orienta l'arc de triomphe de Galère & à l'arc de triomphe de Galère et à l'église Saint-Georges de Salonique".
- Καραμπερη, Μ. (AAA 23–28, 1990-1995). "Ο πολος του Οκταγωνο στο γαλεριανο συγκροτημα και η σχεση του με το νοτιο μεγαλο περιστυλιο".
- Καραμπερη, Μ. (Θεσσαλονικεων πολις 3, 2000). "Η αυτοκρατορικη εδρα Θεσσαλονικη".
- Sasel, J. (ed.). Tabula Imperii Romani (Sheet K34).
- Vichers, M. (BSA 66, 1971). "A note on the Byzantine Palace at Thessaloniki".
- Ward-Perkins, J. B. (New York, 1981). "Roman Imperial Architecture".
General reference
- Bianchi-Bandinelli, R. (New York, 1971). "Rome: The Late Empire".
- Brilliant, R. (L'Arte 10, 1970). "Temporal Aspects in Late Roman Art".
- Brown, P. (New York, 1971). "The World of Late Antiquity".
- Cameron, A. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993). "The Later Roman Empire, A. D. 284-430".
- Kleiner, D. E. E. (New Haven, 1992). "Roman Sculpture".
Further reading
- Machabée, Stéphanie, Religion and Contested Cultural Heritage: The Rotunda and Hagia Sophia as Church, Mosque, and Museum, Yale University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, 2022.
- ISBN 9780870991790; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries