Areal feature
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In
Genetic relationships are represented in the
Characteristics
Resemblances between two or more languages (whether in typology or in vocabulary) have been observed to result from several mechanisms, including lingual genealogical relation (descent from a common ancestor language, not principally related to biological genetics);
Major models
William Labov in 2007 reconciled the tree and wave models in a general framework based on differences between children and adults in their language learning ability. Adults do not preserve structural features with sufficient regularity to establish a norm in their community, but children do. Linguistic features are diffused across an area by contacts among adults. Languages branch into dialects and thence into related languages through small changes in the course of children's learning processes which accumulate over generations, and when speech communities do not communicate (frequently) with each other, these cumulative changes diverge.[3] Diffusion of areal features for the most part hinges on low-level phonetic shifts, whereas tree-model transmission includes in addition structural factors such as "grammatical conditioning, word boundaries, and the systemic relations that drive chain shifting".[4]
Sprachbund
In some areas with high linguistic diversity, a number of areal features have spread across a set of languages to form a sprachbund (also known as a linguistic area, convergence area or diffusion area). Some examples are the Balkan sprachbund, the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, and the languages of the Indian subcontinent.[citation needed]
Examples
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Phonetics and phonology
- The spread of the guttural R from either German or French to several Northern European languages.
- Presence of /ɫ/ (dark L), usually contrasting with palatalized /lʲ/ in Slavic, Baltic and Turkic languages of Central Asia.
- Development of a three-tone system with no tones in words ending in -p, -t, -k, followed by a tone split, and many other phonetic similarities in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area.
- Retroflex consonants in the Burushaski,[5][6] Nuristani,[7] Dravidian, Munda,[8] and Indo-Aryan families of South Asia.
- The occurrence of click consonants in several languages of Southern Africa, including a few Bantu languages
- The lack of Australian languages.
- The use of ejective and aspirated consonants in the languages of the Caucasus.
- The prevalence of affricatesin the Pacific Northwest of North America.
- The development of a .
- The absence of [w] and presence of [v] in many languages of Central and Eastern Europe.
- The lack of nasal consonants in languages of the Puget Sound and the Olympic Peninsula.
- The absence of [Northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.
- The presence of a voicing contrast on fricatives e.g. [Southwestern Asia.
Morphophonology
- Vowel alternation patterns in reduplicatives.[9]
Morphology
Syntax
- The tendency in much of Europe to use a transitive verb (e.g. "I have") for possession, rather than a possessive dative construction such as mihi est (Latin: 'to me is') which is more likely the original possessive construction in Proto-Indo-European, considering the lack of a common root for "have" verbs.[10]
- The development of a perfect aspectusing "have" + past participle in many European languages (Romance, Germanic, etc.). (The Latin habeo and Germanic haben used for this and the previous point are not in fact etymologically related.)
- A perfect aspectusing "be" + past participle for intransitive and reflexive verbs (with participle agreement), present in French, Italian, German, older Spanish and Portuguese, and possibly even English, in phrases like "I am become death, destroyer of worlds" and "The kingdom of this world is become".
- Postposed .
- The spread of a verb-final word order to the Austronesian languages of New Guinea.
- A system of classifiers/measure words in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area.
Sociolinguistics
- The use of the plural pronoun as a polite word for you in much of Europe (the tu-vous distinction).
See also
- Comparative method
- Language contact
- Linguistic typology
- Linkage (linguistics)
- Mass comparison
- Wave model
- World Atlas of Language Structures
Notes
- ^ "etymonline.com: areal (adj.)".
- ^ Drechsel, Emanuel J. (1988). "Wilhelm von Humboldt and Edward Sapir: analogies and homologies in their linguistic thoughts", in
Shipley, William, ed. (December 1988). In Honor of Mary Haas: From the Haas Festival Conference on Native American Linguistics. the Hague: de Gruyter Mouton. p. 826. ISBN 978-3-11-011165-1. p. 254.
- ^ Labov, William (2007). "Transmission and diffusion" (PDF). Language. 83 (2): 344–387. . Retrieved 18 Aug 2010.
- ^ Labov 2007:6.
- ^ Berger, H. Die Burushaski-Sprache von Hunza und Nagar. Vols. I-III. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 1988
- ISBN 9780203208793.
- ^ G. Morgenstierne, Irano-Dardica. Wiesbaden 1973
- ISBN 978-0-415-32890-6
- .
- ^ Winfred Philipp Lehmann, Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, Routledge, 1992, p. 170
References
- Abbi, Anvita. (1992). Reduplication in South Asian Languages: An Areal, Typological, and Historical Study. India: Allied Publishers.
- Blevins, Juliette. (2017). Areal sound patterns: From perceptual magnets to stone soup. In R. Hickey (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Areal Linguistics (pp. 88–121). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Campbell, Lyle (2006). "Areal linguistics: A closer scrutiny". In Matras, Yaron; McMahon, April; Vincent, Nigel (eds.). Linguistic areas: Convergence in historical and typological perspective. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–31. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2016-10-17.
- Campbell, Lyle (2006). "Areal linguistics". In Brown, Keith (ed.). Encyclopedia of language and linguistics (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 1.455–460. Archived from the original on 2012-03-13. Retrieved 2010-09-25.
- Chappell, Hilary. (2001). Language contact and areal diffusion in Sinitic languages. In A. Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (Eds.), Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics (pp. 328–357). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Enfield, N. J. (2005). Areal Linguistics and Mainland Southeast Asia. Annual Review of Anthropology, 34, 181–206.
- Haas, Mary R. (1978). Language, culture, and history, essays by Mary R. Haas, selected and introduced by Anwar S. Dil. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Haas, Mary R. (June 1978). Prehistory of Languages. The Hague: de Gruyter Mouton. p. 120. ISBN 978-90-279-0681-6.
- Hickey, Raymond, ed. (2017). The Cambridge Handbook of Areal Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Kirby, James & Brunelle, Marc. (2017). Southeast Asian Tone in Areal Perspective. In R. Hickey (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Areal Linguistics (pp. 703–731). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Matisoff, J. A. (1999). Tibeto-Burman tonology in an areal context. In Proceedings of the symposium Crosslinguistic studies of tonal phenomena: Tonogenesis, Japanese Accentology, and Other Topics (pp. 3–31). Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.