Argentine wine

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Official logo for Vino Argentino Bebida Nacional ("Argentine Wine National Liquor")[1]
Argentine red (left) and white (right) wine, with typical elements such as the pingüino ("penguin") and the "Drago" siphon.

vine cuttings were brought to Santiago del Estero in 1557, and the cultivation of the grape and wine production stretched first to neighboring regions, and then to other parts of the country.[citation needed
]

Historically, Argentine winemakers were traditionally more interested in quantity than quality with the country consuming 90% of the wine it produces (45 liters per year or 12 U.S. gallons per year per capita according to 2006 figures). Until the early 1990s, Argentina produced more wine than any other country outside Europe, though the majority of it was considered unexportable.[3] However, the desire to increase exports fueled significant advances in quality. Argentine wines started being exported during the 1990s, and are currently growing in popularity, making it now the largest wine exporter in South America. The devaluation of the Argentine peso in 2002 further fueled the industry as production costs decreased and tourism significantly increased, giving way to a whole new concept of enotourism in Argentina.[citation needed]

The most important wine regions of the country are located in the

grape diseases that affect vineyards in other countries. This allows cultivating with little or no pesticides, enabling even organic wines to be easily produced.[4]

There are many different varieties of grapes cultivated in Argentina, reflecting the country's many immigrant groups. The

international varieties are becoming more widely planted, but some varieties are cultivated characteristically in certain areas.[6]

In November 2010, the Argentine government declared wine as Argentina's national liquor.[1]

History

Domingo Sarmiento was instrumental in having the first Malbec
vines brought from France to Argentina

Mission grape. This grape was the forerunner of the Criolla Chica variety that would be the backbone of the Argentine wine industry for the next 300 years.[8]

The first recorded commercial vineyard was established at

agronomist Miguel Aimé Pouget to bring grapevine cuttings from France to Argentina. Of the vines that Pouget brought were the very first Malbec vines to be planted in that country.[6]

As the early Argentine wine industry centralized in the western part of the country among the foothills of the mountains, the population centers of the country developed in the east. Transporting wine by means of a long wagon journey put a crimp in the growth of the wine industry that would not be eased till the 1885 completion of the

phylloxera epidemic that ravaged vineyards in their homeland and they brought with them their expertise and winemaking knowledge to their new home.[8]

Economic troubles and growth of export industry

In the 20th century, the development and fortunes of the Argentine wine industry were deeply influenced by the economic influences of the country. In the 1920s, Argentina was the eighth richest nation in the world[citation needed] with the domestic market feeding[citation needed] a strong wine industry. The ensuing global Great Depression dramatically reduced vital export revenues and foreign investment and led to a decline in the wine industry.[citation needed]

There was a brief revival in the economy during the

vino de mesa. By the early 1970s, per capita consumption was nearly 90 L or 24 US gal (i.e. around 120 standard 750 mL wine bottles) per year, significantly more than many other countries including the United Kingdom[8] and United States which averaged around three liters (less than a gallon) per person during the same period.[4]

In the 1980s there was a period of hyperinflation, running at up to 12,000% per year in 1989.[10] Foreign investment was mostly stagnant. Under the presidency of Carlos Menem, the country saw some economic stability. The favorable exchange rate on the Argentine peso during the convertibility period saw an influx of foreign investment. However this period also saw a dramatic drop in domestic consumption.[8]

Following the example of neighboring Chile, the Argentine wine industry started to more aggressively focus on the export market—particularly the lucrative British and American markets. The presence of

fermentation and the use of new oak barrels. By the end of the 1990s, Argentina was exporting more 3.3 million gallons (12.5 million liters) to the United States with exports to the UK also strong. Wine experts such as Karen MacNeil noted that up to this point the Argentine wine industry was considered a "sleeping giant" which by the end of the 20th century was waking up.[4]

Climate and geography

Located in the western part of the country among the foothills of the Andes, the major wine regions of Argentina have a semi-arid desert-like climate owing to low annual precipitation and rely on irrigation from the melting snow caps of the mountains for viticulture.

The major wine regions of Argentina are located in the western part of the country among the foothills of the

diurnal temperature variation.[8]

Some regions have more

altitudes with poor air circulation. Most rainfall occurs during the summer months and in late summer sometimes fall as hail (known as La Piedra), posing potential damage to the vines.[8] These warmer regions can see an average of 320 days of sunshine a year.[4]

The northwestern wine regions are particularly prone to the effects of the

El Niño phenomenon can have a sharp influence on climate condition during a growing season-such as the case during the 1998 vintage when prolong heavy rains brought by El Niño led to widespread rot and fungal disease.[8]

The Andes Mountains are the dominant geographical feature of Argentine wine regions, with the snow-capped mountains often serving as a backdrop view to the vineyards. As the winter snows start to melt in the spring, an intricate irrigation system of dams, canals and channels brings vital water supplies down to the wine regions to sustain viticulture in the dry, arid climates. Most of the wine regions are located within the foothills of the Andes and recent trends have seen a push to plant vineyards on higher elevations closer to the mountains.[6]

The climate in some of this regions can be more

Neuquén, the soil is more chalky.[8]

Viticulture

The growing season in Argentina usually last from

canopy management and the construction of more winemaking facilities closer to the vineyards.[8]

A vineyard in the Cafayate region of Calchaquí Valleys, Salta, utilizing modern vine training and drip irrigation techniques.

Argentina is unique in the wine world for the absence of the phylloxera threat that has devastated vineyards across the globe. The phylloxera louse is present in Argentina but is a particular weak biotype that does not survive long in the soil. When it does attack vines, the damage is not significant enough to kill the vine and the roots eventually grow back.[2]

Because of this most of the vineyards in Argentina are planted on

flood irrigation where water is allowed to deeply saturate the soil may be one reason, as is the high proportion of sand present in the soil. The relative isolation of Argentina is also cited as a potential benefit against phylloxera with the country's wine regions being bordered by mountains, deserts and oceans that create natural barriers against the spread of the louse.[8] Despite the minimal risk of phylloxera, some producers are switching to grafted rootstock that provide better yield control.[4]

Various methods of vine training were introduced in Argentina by European immigrants in the 19th and 20th century. The espaldera system combined the traditional method of using three wires to train the vines close to the ground. In the 1950s a new system known as parral cuyano was introduced where vines were trained high off the ground with the clusters allowed to hang down.[6] This style was conducive to the high yielding varieties of Criolla and Cereza that were the backbone of the bulk wine production industry that arose in response to the large domestic market. In the late 20th century, as the market turned to focus more on premium wine production, more producers switched back to the traditional espaldera system and began to practice canopy management in order to control yields.[8]

Irrigation

The intricate irrigation system used to bring water from melted snow caps in the Andes originated in the 16th century (with the Spanish settlers adopting techniques previously used by the

water wells, though costly to build, can supply a vineyard with as much as 250,000 liters (66,000 U.S. gallons) of water per hour.[8]

Historically, flood irrigation was the most common method used, whereby large amounts of water are allowed to run across flat vineyard lands. While this method may have been an unwittingly preventive measure against the advance of phylloxera, it does not provide much control for the vineyard manager to limit yields and increase potential quality in the wine grapes.

furrow channels that the vines are planted in. While providing a little more control, this method was still more suited to producing high yields. In the late 1990s, drip irrigation started to become more popular. Though expensive to install, this method provides for the maximum level of control by the vineyard manager to facilitate yield control and increase potential quality in the grape by leveraging water stress on the vine.[8]

Wine regions

Argentine wine regions.

While there is some wine production in the provinces of

La Pampa
, the vast majority of wine production takes place in the far western expanse of Argentina leading up to the foothills of the Andes. The Mendoza region is the largest region and the leading producer, responsible for more than two-thirds of the country's yearly production, followed by the San Juan and La Rioja regions to the north.

In the far northwestern corner of the country are the provinces of Catamarca,

Jujuy and Salta which includes some of the world's highest planted vineyards. In the southern region of Patagonia, the Río Negro and Neuquén provinces have traditionally been the fruit producing centers of the country but have recently seen growth in the planting of cool climate varietals (such as Pinot noir and Chardonnay).[8]

Mendoza

Despite the total area planted declining from 629,850 to 360,972 acres (254,891 to 146,080 ha) between 1980 and 2003, Mendoza is still the leading producer of wine in Argentina.

Australia combined.[4]

The majority of the vineyards are found in the

Tupungato department. Located in the shadow of Mount Aconcagua, the average vineyards in Mendoza are planted at altitudes 600 to 1,100 m (2,000 to 3,600 ft) above sea level. The soil of the region is sandy and alluvial on top of clay substructures and the climate is continental with four distinct seasons that affect the grapevine, including winter dormancy.[8]

Historically, the region has been dominated by production of wine from the high yielding, pink-skinned varieties of

Italian varieties. In the high altitude vineyards of Tupungato, located southwest of the city of Mendoza in the Uco Valley, Chardonnay is increasing in popularity.[8] The cooler climate and lower salinity in the soils of the Maipú region has been receiving attention for the quality of its Cabernet Sauvignon. Wine producers in the region are working with authorities to establish a controlled appellation.[2]

High-altitude plantings

Winery & Vineyards at Cachi, Argentina, rising to 10,200 ft (3,109 m).

Argentina's most highly rated Malbec wines originate from Mendoza's high altitude wine regions of Luján de Cuyo and the Uco Valley. These Districts are located in the foothills of the Andes mountains between 850 and 1,520 m (2,800 and 5,000 ft) elevation.[11][12][13][14]

Argentine vintner Nicolas Catena Zapata has been widely credited for elevating the status of Argentine Malbec and the Mendoza region through serious experimentation into the effects of high altitude.[15][16][17] In 1994, he was the first to plant a Malbec vineyard at almost 1,500 m (5,000 ft) elevation in the Gualtallary sub-district of Tupungato, the Adrianna Vineyard,[15][11] and to develop a clonal selection of Argentine Malbec.[18][19][20][15]

High altitude Mendoza has attracted many notable foreign winemakers such as Paul Hobbs, Michel Rolland, Roberto Cipresso and Alberto Antonini[11][12]

San Juan & La Rioja

After Mendoza, the San Juan region is the second largest producer of wine with over 47,000 ha (116,000 acres) planted as of 2003. The climate of this region is considerably hotter and drier than Mendoza with rainfall averaging 150 mm (6 in) a year and summer time temperatures regularly hitting 42 °C (108 °F). Premium wine production is centered on the

brandies and vermouth. The high yielding Cereza vine is also prominent here where it is used for blending and grape concentrate as well as for raisin and table grape consumption.[8]

Recently, the higher-altitude vines planted in the Pedernal valley in Western San Juan, one of the most isolated regions in Argentina, have received significant acclaim for their potential to bring fame to the province's wine industry. The altitude here exceeds that of more southerly Uco Valley in Mendoza, leading to extremely dry conditions with high thermal amplitude and excellent results both for red and white wines.[21]

The La Rioja region was one of the first areas to be planted by Spanish missionaries and has the longest continued history of wine production in Argentina. Though a relatively small region, with only 8,100 ha (20,000 acres) planted as of 2003, the region is known for

Moscatel de Alexandrias and Torrontés made from a local sub-variety known as Torrontés Riojano.[8] Lack of water has curtailed vineyard expansion here.[citation needed
]

Northwestern regions

Torrontés grapes, pre-veraison, growing in the Cafayate region.

The vineyards of the northwestern provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy and Salta are located between the

wine labels as if they were grand cru classifications.[23]

The soils and climate of the regions are very similar to Mendoza but the unique

full bodied whites made from Torrontés Riojano as well as its fruity reds made from Cabernet Sauvignon and Tannat.[8]

Most of Cafayate region in Salta is located at 1,660 m (5,450 ft) above sea levels in the river delta between the

enologist Michel Rolland and California wine producer Donald M. Hess.[6]

Patagonia

The wine regions of Patagonia are the source of many Pinot noir grapes used for the Argentine sparkling wine industry.

The southern Patagonia region includes the fruit producing regions of Río Negro and Neuquén. These have a considerably cooler climate than the major regions to the north, which provides a long, drawn-out growing season in the chalky soils of the area. In the early 20th century, Humberto Canale imported vine cuttings from Bordeaux and established the first commercial winery in the region.

Semillon and Torrontés Riojano. Many of the grapes for the Argentine sparkling wine industry are sourced from this area. Located more than 1,600 km (990 mi) south of Mendoza, the vineyards of Bodega Weinert are noted as the southernmost planted vineyards in the Americas.[8]

The most significant vineyards are located in the Rio Negro Valley, where some of the most prominent Pinot Noir red wines in Argentina are made, and in the upper Neuquen Valley, especially around the town of San Patricio del Chanar. Additionally, there are promising vineyards located in the La Pampa Province near the Colorado river, near the city of 25 de Mayo. These regions have shorter summers with longer daylight hours, and significantly colder winters than the main wine areas further north. Besides Pinot Noir, the area is known for producing good Merlot wines as well as white wines (mostly Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc). Recently, however, the area has gained traction because of its promising Cabernet Franc red wines, which have added to the diversity of Argentine wine with their hint of red fruit, elegant tannins and peppery taste. .[24]

Further south, the Province of Chubut is a mostly uncharted wine frontier. Traditionally considered too cold for plantings, there are micro-climates (e.g. the irrigated Chubut Valley area near the Atlantic coast, the Trevelin Valley where Pacific winds moderate the climate, and some steppe regions) which are promising for winemaking. Production started in the late 2000s, with a new Wine Route established in 2017. The main plantings have been, so far, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Gewürztraminer, Merlot, Riesling and Pinot Gris.[25]

New developments

Argentine winemakers have long held the belief that vines required hot and arid climates with large temperature variations to produce quality wines. This 'winning formula' led to a concentration of wineries in Mendoza, San Juan and La Rioja provinces in the west, as well as higher-altitude vineyards in Salta. More recently, there has been a shift towards slightly cooler and equally arid climates further south, in Neuquen and Rio Negro. Wineries there still benefit from windy and arid conditions, but with cooler temperatures and a shorter growing season.[citation needed]

However, in the last decade, the potential for 'non-traditional' (or re-discovered) regions has become apparent, concentrated in several areas: (1) the Atlantic coast from

Cordoba Province
, which had been significant growers in colonial times, but where winemakers have only recently started experimenting with higher altitudes, (3) Entre Rios, an unlikely location because of its humid, warm climate, which had been famous for its wines more than a century ago, and (4) the Patagonian Plateau, a region of cold, windy and arid climates. Except for coastal Buenos Aires, where large investments are underway, most developments have consisted of smaller-scale wineries experimenting with new wine varieties and techniques, with the potential to bring about a completely 'new style' of Argentine wines which will be very different from the typical Malbec produced currently.[citation needed]

The climate in Mar del Plata and along the coast of Buenos Aires Province display the same temperature range as Bordeaux with similar (high) precipitation. Further inland, summers gain a few degrees while winter nights become somewhat colder in the flat southern Pampas. Adding to the variety of climates and soils in the area, there are low mountain areas (generally below 1,000 metres or 3,000 ft.), valleys and rivers. Major wineries (like Trapiche) have made investments in the area and production is likely to increase significantly, but most of the potential in this vast area is untapped. As the coast continues south, the weather becomes drier and windier, with (counter-intuitively) hotter summers. South of the city of

Viedma, San Antonio Oeste, Puerto Madryn, Trelew and even Comodoro Rivadavia where cool, windy desert climates are greatly moderated by the Atlantic.[citation needed
]

Climate chart for Mar del Plata:

Climate data for Mar del Plata (1961–1990, extremes 1931–present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 41.6
(106.9)
38.2
(100.8)
36.3
(97.3)
33.0
(91.4)
28.5
(83.3)
25.5
(77.9)
27.7
(81.9)
29.9
(85.8)
30.1
(86.2)
34.4
(93.9)
35.7
(96.3)
39.4
(102.9)
41.6
(106.9)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 26.3
(79.3)
25.8
(78.4)
23.7
(74.7)
20.5
(68.9)
16.8
(62.2)
13.8
(56.8)
13.1
(55.6)
14.4
(57.9)
16.0
(60.8)
18.5
(65.3)
21.7
(71.1)
24.4
(75.9)
19.6
(67.3)
Daily mean °C (°F) 20.3
(68.5)
19.9
(67.8)
18.0
(64.4)
14.6
(58.3)
11.3
(52.3)
8.5
(47.3)
8.1
(46.6)
8.9
(48.0)
10.5
(50.9)
13.1
(55.6)
15.9
(60.6)
18.5
(65.3)
14.0
(57.2)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 14.3
(57.7)
14.1
(57.4)
12.5
(54.5)
9.1
(48.4)
6.4
(43.5)
4.1
(39.4)
3.8
(38.8)
4.0
(39.2)
5.3
(41.5)
7.6
(45.7)
10.1
(50.2)
12.7
(54.9)
8.7
(47.7)
Record low °C (°F) 3.0
(37.4)
1.2
(34.2)
0.2
(32.4)
−3.6
(25.5)
−3.7
(25.3)
−8.0
(17.6)
−9.3
(15.3)
−6.4
(20.5)
−6.3
(20.7)
−3.0
(26.6)
−2.0
(28.4)
−0.2
(31.6)
−9.3
(15.3)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 100.1
(3.94)
72.8
(2.87)
107.0
(4.21)
73.3
(2.89)
73.5
(2.89)
54.9
(2.16)
58.9
(2.32)
64.0
(2.52)
56.4
(2.22)
83.4
(3.28)
75.3
(2.96)
104.0
(4.09)
923.6
(36.36)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 9 8 9 9 9 9 9 8 7 10 10 10 107
Average
relative humidity
(%)
76 77 79 81 83 84 81 81 80 80 77 76 80
Mean monthly sunshine hours 288.3 234.5 232.5 195.0 167.4 120.0 127.1 164.3 174.0 210.8 222.0 269.7 2,405.6
Percent possible sunshine 63 60 54 58 51 41 42 46 47 51 52 59 52
Source 1: NOAA,[26] Meteo Climat (record highs and lows), Oficina de Riesgo Agropecuario (June record low only)
Source 2: Servicio Meteorológico Nacional (precipitation days),[27] UNLP (sun only)[28]

Climate of Bordeaux (for comparison - note the reverted seasons)

Climate data for Bordeaux-Mérignac (1981–2010 averages)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 20.2
(68.4)
26.2
(79.2)
27.7
(81.9)
31.1
(88.0)
35.4
(95.7)
39.2
(102.6)
38.8
(101.8)
40.7
(105.3)
37.0
(98.6)
32.2
(90.0)
26.7
(80.1)
22.5
(72.5)
40.7
(105.3)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 10.1
(50.2)
11.7
(53.1)
15.1
(59.2)
17.3
(63.1)
21.2
(70.2)
24.5
(76.1)
26.9
(80.4)
27.1
(80.8)
24.0
(75.2)
19.4
(66.9)
13.7
(56.7)
10.5
(50.9)
18.5
(65.3)
Daily mean °C (°F) 6.6
(43.9)
7.5
(45.5)
10.3
(50.5)
12.4
(54.3)
16.1
(61.0)
19.3
(66.7)
21.4
(70.5)
21.4
(70.5)
18.5
(65.3)
14.9
(58.8)
9.9
(49.8)
7.2
(45.0)
13.8
(56.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 3.1
(37.6)
3.3
(37.9)
5.4
(41.7)
7.4
(45.3)
11.0
(51.8)
14.1
(57.4)
15.8
(60.4)
15.7
(60.3)
12.9
(55.2)
10.4
(50.7)
6.1
(43.0)
3.8
(38.8)
9.1
(48.4)
Record low °C (°F) −16.4
(2.5)
−15.2
(4.6)
−9.9
(14.2)
−5.3
(22.5)
−1.8
(28.8)
2.5
(36.5)
4.8
(40.6)
1.5
(34.7)
−1.8
(28.8)
−5.3
(22.5)
−12.3
(9.9)
−13.4
(7.9)
−16.4
(2.5)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 87.3
(3.44)
71.7
(2.82)
65.3
(2.57)
78.2
(3.08)
80.0
(3.15)
62.2
(2.45)
49.9
(1.96)
56.0
(2.20)
84.3
(3.32)
93.3
(3.67)
110.2
(4.34)
105.7
(4.16)
944.1
(37.17)
Average precipitation days 12.2 10.1 11.0 11.9 10.9 8.3 7.1 7.5 9.2 11.0 12.6 12.4 124.3
Average snowy days 1.1 1.2 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.8 3.9
Average
relative humidity
(%)
88 84 78 76 77 76 75 76 79 85 87 88 80.8
Mean monthly sunshine hours 96.0 114.9 169.7 182.1 217.4 238.7 248.5 242.3 202.7 147.2 94.4 81.8 2,035.4
Source 1: Météo France[29][30]
Source 2: Infoclimat.fr (humidity and snowy days, 1961–1990)[31]

Another promising region are the

Sierras de Cordoba in the middle of the country. Contrasting with the humid temperate Pampas, mountainous areas have better drainage, cooler nights and sunny weather. Historically, wine was grown in two areas: the Northern part of the province around Colonia Caroya and the extreme Western part, around Villa Dolores. These are the warmest, sunniest parts of the province and, in the past, produced sweet, lower quality wines (although new wineries are creating more interesting varietals).[32]
The Eastern part of the Sierras, from the Villa General Belgrano area to the Punilla Valley, was generally considered to be too cool and humid, following the old Argentine stereotype of hot-desert wine-making. Over the last decade, however, boutique wineries have discovered the potential of the exceptional variety of soils and micro-climates in the area, producing wines that have won significant national awards (some near La Cumbrecita, an alpine town that would have been considered too cool for vines recently).[33] The scale of production remains minimal, but large numbers of new producers are experimenting with grape varieties and techniques to make wines that are significantly different from the stereotypical Mendoza Malbecs, often with great success. The large variation in elevation in the Sierras make them suitable for high-altitude wine experimentation, similar to what producers have done in Mendoza.[citation needed]

The Province of Entre Ríos has a warm, humid climate similar to neighboring Uruguay, where tannat wines are produced. Until the 1930s there were over 60 wineries in the Province, producing more wine than Mendoza and San Juan; these were however forbidden by law in an effort to ensure the settlement of Western Argentina. In recent years, over 60 producers have started replanting wines.[34]

Finally, the steppes of Central Patagonia in Chubut have the southernmost wines in the world. The climate here is markedly colder than any other region, with a threat of summer frost. Much longer summer days with very cold nights and a short growing season have the potential to produce wines that are markedly different from any other wines in Argentina.[35]

Grape varieties and wines

Under Argentine wine laws, if a grape name appears on the

oxidize easily and often have noticeable sweetness.[8]

These varieties are often used today for bulk jug wine sold in 1 liter cardboard cartons or as grape concentrate which is exported worldwide with Japan being a considerably large market. In the late 20th century, as the Argentine wine industry shifted it focus on premium wine production capable for export, Malbec arose to greater prominence and is today the most widely planted red grape variety followed by Bonarda, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Tempranillo. The influence of Italian immigrants has brought a variety of Italian varietals with sizable plantings throughout Argentina-including Barbera, Dolcetto, Freisa, Lambrusco, Nebbiolo, Raboso and Sangiovese.[8]

While the historic birthplace of Malbec is

alcohol levels.[2]

The

Torrontés produces some of the most distinctive white wines in Argentina, characterized by floral

Australia. Argentine Chardonnay has shown to thrive in high altitude plantings and is being increasing planted in the Tupungato region on vineyard sites located at altitudes around nearly 1,200 m (3,900 ft).[8]

Modern wine industry

The Tapiz Winery, located in Mendoza.

By the turn of the 21st century there were over 1,500 wineries in Argentina. The two largest companies are Bodegas Esmeralda (which owns the widely exported brand Alamos) and Peñaflor (which owns another widely exported brand Bodegas Trapiche). Between the two of them, these companies are responsible for nearly 40% of all the wine made in Argentina. The Argentine wine industry is fifth worldwide in production and eighth in wine consumption.[4]

The continued trend of the industry is to increase quality and control yields. Between the mid-1990s and early 21st century, Argentina had ripped up nearly a third of its vineyards but reduced yearly production only by 10%. This meant there was an increase in yields from 66 hl/ha to 88 hl/ha.[23]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Ley No. 26870 – Declárase al Vino Argentino como bebida nacional, 2 de agosto de 2013, B.O., (32693), 1 (in Spanish)
  2. ^ .
  3. ^ Robinson, Jancis, jancisrobinson.com (July 13, 2007). "Chile v Argentina - an old rivalry". Archived from the original on July 3, 2014. Retrieved December 26, 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ .
  5. ^ Robinson, Jancis, jancisrobinson.com (September 9, 2008). "Argentina". Archived from the original on March 6, 2014. Retrieved December 26, 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ .
  7. ^ "The History of Wine in Argentina". Archived from the original on 2012-03-27. Retrieved 2011-07-14.
  8. ^ .
  9. .
  10. ^ New York Times: THE WORLD; For Argentina, Inflation and Rage Rise in Tandem, 4 June 1989
  11. ^ .
  12. ^ .
  13. ^ Wine Tip: Malbec Madness, "Wine Spectator", April 12, 2010.
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External links