Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia

Coordinates: 37°00′N 35°30′E / 37.0°N 35.5°E / 37.0; 35.5
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

37°00′N 35°30′E / 37.0°N 35.5°E / 37.0; 35.5

Armenian Principality of Cilicia (1080–1198)

Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (1198–1375)
Կիլիկիոյ Հայոց Թագաւորութիւն
1198/99–1375
Flag of Cilicia
Flag of the Rubenid dynasty (1198–1219)
Mongols
1236
• Sis is conquered by the Mamluks
, putting an end to the kingdom
1375
Area
13th century[2]40,000 km2 (15,000 sq mi)
Population
• 13th century[2]
1,000,000+
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Seljuk Empire
Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty
Bagratid Armenia
Mamluk Sultanate
Kingdom of Cyprus, Jerusalem and Armenia
Ramadanid Emirate
Today part of
Ruben I when the Rubenid
principality of Cilicia was founded.

The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (

Armenian Highlands and distinct from the Kingdom of Armenia of antiquity, it was centered in the Cilicia region northwest of the Gulf of Alexandretta
.

The kingdom had its origins in the principality founded c. 1080 by the Rubenid dynasty, an alleged offshoot of the larger Bagratuni dynasty, which at various times had held the throne of Armenia. Their capital was originally at Tarsus, and later moved to Sis.[5] Cilicia was a strong ally of the European Crusaders, and saw itself as a bastion of Christendom in the East. It also served as a focal point for Armenian cultural production, since Armenia proper was under foreign occupation at the time. Cilicia's significance in Armenian history and statehood is also attested by the transfer of the seat of the Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church, spiritual leader of the Armenian people, to the region.

In 1198, with the crowning of

Mamluks.[7] In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Crusader states and the Mongol Ilkhanate disintegrated, leaving the Armenian Kingdom without any regional allies. After relentless attacks by the Mamluks in Egypt in the fourteenth century, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, then under the rule of the Lusignan dynasty and mired in an internal religious conflict, finally fell in 1375.[8]

Commercial and military interactions with Europeans brought new Western influences to the Cilician Armenian society. Many aspects of Western European life were adopted by the nobility including

Ayas serving as a center for East–West trade.[9]

Early Armenian migrations to Cilicia

Cilicia under Tigranes the Great

Armenian presence in Cilicia dates back to the first century BC, when under

Pontic Alps to Mesopotamia, and from the Caspian to the Mediterranean. Tigranes invaded as far southeast as the Parthian capital of Ecbatana, located in modern-day western Iran. In 27 BC, the Roman Empire conquered Cilicia and transformed it into one of its eastern provinces.[12]

Mass Armenian migration under the Byzantine Empire

After the 395 AD partition of the Roman Empire into halves, Cilicia became incorporated into the

Eastern Roman Empire, also called the Byzantine Empire. In the sixth century AD, Armenian families relocated to Byzantine territories. Many served in the Byzantine army as soldiers or as generals, and rose to prominent imperial positions.[13]

Situation in the Armenian highlands during the Seljuk Empire.

Cilicia fell to

Nicephorus II Phocas. The Caliphate's occupation of Cilicia and of other areas in Asia Minor led many Armenians to seek refuge and protection further west in the Byzantine Empire, which created demographic imbalances in the region.[12] In order to better protect their eastern territories after their reconquest, the Byzantines resorted largely to a policy of mass transfer and relocation of native populations within the Empire's borders.[12] Nicephorus thus expelled the Muslims living in Cilicia, and encouraged Christians from Syria and Armenia to settle in the region. Emperor Basil II (976–1025) tried to expand into Armenian Vaspurakan in the east and Arab-held Syria towards the south. As a result of the Byzantine military campaigns, the Armenians spread into Cappadocia, and eastward from Cilicia into the mountainous areas of northern Syria and Mesopotamia.[14]

The formal annexation of Greater Armenia to the Byzantine Empire in 1045 and its conquest by the Seljuk Turks 19 years later caused two new waves of Armenian migration to Cilicia.

Edessa in the east. He invited many Armenian nobles to settle in his territory, and gave them land and castles.[15] But Philaretus's state began to crumble even before his death in 1090, and ultimately disintegrated into local lordships.[16]

The Rubenid dynasty

Emergence of Cilician Armenia

The Barony of Cilician Armenia, 1080–1199

One of the princes who came after Philaretos' invitation was

Edessa, the latter two being located outside Cilicia.[16]

First Crusade

Baldwin of Boulogne receiving the homage of the Armenians in Edessa.

During the reign of Constantine I, the First Crusade took place. An army of Western European Christians marched through Anatolia and Cilicia on their way to Jerusalem. The Armenians in Cilicia gained powerful allies among the Frankish Crusaders, whose leader, Godfrey of Bouillon, was considered a savior for the Armenians. Constantine saw the Crusaders' arrival as a one-time opportunity to consolidate his rule of Cilicia by eliminating the remaining Byzantine strongholds in the region.[18] With the Crusaders' help, they secured Cilicia from the Byzantines and Turks, both by direct military actions in Cilicia and by establishing Crusader states in Antioch, Edessa, and Tripoli.[19] The Armenians also helped the Crusaders; as described by Pope Gregory XIII in his Ecclesia Romana:

Among the good deeds which the Armenian people has done towards the church and the Christian world, it should especially be stressed that, in those times when the Latin Christian princes and the warriors went to retake the Holy Land, no people or nation, with the same enthusiasm, joy and faith came to their aid as the Armenians did, who supplied the Crusaders with horses, provision and guidance. The Armenians assisted these warriors with their utter courage and loyalty during the Holy wars.

To show their appreciation to their Armenian allies, the Crusaders honored Constantine with the titles of

Joscelin I of Edessa married the daughter of Constantine, and Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, married Constantine's niece, daughter of his brother T'oros.[18] The Armenians and Crusaders were part allies, part rivals for the two centuries to come. Often at the invitation of Armenian barons and kings the Crusaders maintained for varying periods castles in and along the borders of the Kingdom, including Bagras, Trapessac, T‛il Hamtun, Harunia, Selefkia, Amouda, and Sarvandikar.[5]

Armenian-Byzantine and Armenian-Seljuk contentions

The son of Constantine was

Gagik II. The assassins of the latter, three Byzantine brothers who governed the castle, were thus brutally killed.[18][19]
Eventually, there emerged a type of centralized government in the area with the rise of the Rubenid princes. During the twelfth century, they were the closest thing to a ruling dynasty, and wrestled with the Byzantines for power over the region.

Armenian Church transferred his see to Hromkla.[14] Ruben II, Mleh, and Ruben III
, succeeded T'oros in 1169, 1170, and 1175, respectively.

Principality becomes a kingdom

Little Armenia and its surrounding states in 1200.

The Principality of Cilicia was a de facto kingdom before the ascension of Levon II. Levon II is considered the first king of Cilicia due to the Byzantine refusal of previous de facto kings as genuine de jure kings, rather than dukes.

Prince

Holy Roman Emperors (Frederick Barbarossa, and his son, Henry VI), he elevated the princedom's status to a kingdom. On January 6, 1198, the day Armenians celebrate Christmas, Prince Levon II was crowned with great solemnity in the cathedral of Tarsus, in the presence of the Syrian Jacobite patriarch, the Greek metropolitan of Tarsus, and numerous church dignitaries and military leaders.[23] While he was crowned by the catholicos, Gregory VI Abirad, Levon received a banner with the insignia of a lion from Archbishop Conrad of Mainz in the name of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor.[7][24] By securing his crown, he became the first King of Armenian Cilicia as King Levon I.[22] He became known as Levon the Magnificent, due to his numerous contributions to Cilician Armenian statehood in the political, military, and economic spheres.[5] Levon's growing power made him a particularly important ally for the neighbouring crusader state of Antioch, which resulted in intermarriage with noble families there, but his dynastic policies revealed ambition towards the overlordship of Antioch which the Latins ultimately could not countenance. They resulted in the Antiochene Wars of Succession between Levon's grand-nephew Raymond Roupen and Bohemond IV of Antioch-Tripoli.[25] The Rubenids consolidated their power by controlling strategic roads with fortifications that extended from the Taurus Mountains into the plain and along the borders, including the baronial and royal castles at Sis, Anavarza, Vahka, Vaner/Kovara, Sarvandikar, Kuklak, T‛il Hamtun, Hadjin, and Gaban (modern Geben).[5]

In 1219, after a failed attempt by

Het'um I
.

The Het'umid dynasty

By the 11th century the Het‘umids had settled into western Cilicia, primarily in the highlands of the Taurus Mountains. Their two great dynastic castles were Lampron and Papeŕōn/Baberon, which commanded strategic roads to the Cilician Gates and to Tarsus.[5]

The apparent unification in marriage of the two main dynasties of Cilicia, Rubenid and Het'umid, ended a century of dynastic and territorial rivalry, while bringing the Het'umids to the forefront of political dominance in Cilician Armenia.[8] Although the accession of Het'um I in 1226 marked the beginning of Cilician Armenia's united dynastic kingdom, the Armenians were confronted by many challenges from abroad. In order to enact revenge for his son's death, Bohemond sought an alliance with Seljuk sultan Kayqubad I, who captured regions west of Seleucia. Het'um also struck coins with his figure on one side, and with the name of the sultan on the other.[8]

Armeno-Mongol alliance and Mamluk threat

Korikos
in Cilician Armenia built c. the thirteenth century.

During the rule of Zabel and Het'um, the

Hulagu in the conquest of Muslim Syria and the capture of Aleppo and Damascus from 1259 to 1260. The involvement of Het'um at these two conquests is debated however, with the source for such information - Templar of Tyre - claiming his involvement in a deliberate attempt to integrate Mongols into a Holy-War conquest narrative. This was to persuade Latin Christendom of the need for a war against the Mamluks. [28] According to Arab historians, during Hulagu's conquest of Aleppo, Het'um and his forces were responsible for a massacre and arsons in the main mosque and in the neighboring quarters and souks.[26]

A young Cilician Armenian knight.

Meanwhile, the Egyptian

1268 Cilicia earthquake
further devastated the country.

In 1269, Het'um I abdicated in favour of his son

Ayas, Armenian, and Frankish perished.[29]

Truce with Mamluks (1281–1295)

Little Armenia, a Christian exclave in Anatolia, and its surrounding states in 1300.

In 1281, following the defeat of the Mongols and the Armenians under

Tel Hamdoun
to the Turks. In 1293, he abdicated in favor of his brother T'oros III, and entered the monastery of Mamistra.

Campaigns with Mongols (1299–1303)

Hetum II to accompany Kutlushah on the 1303 attack on Damascus.[33]

In the summer of 1299, Het'um I's grandson,

Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar, on December 23, 1299.[34]
The bulk of the Mongol army was then obligated to retreat. In their absence, the Mamluks regrouped, and regained the area in May 1300.

In 1303, the Mongols tried to conquer Syria once again in larger numbers (approximately 80,000) along with the Armenians, but they were defeated at Homs on March 30, 1303, and during the decisive

Battle of Shaqhab, south of Damascus, on April 21, 1303.[35] It is considered to be the last major Mongol invasion of Syria.[36]
When Ghazan died on May 10, 1304, all hope of reconquest of the Holy Land died in conjunction.

Het'um II abdicated in favour of his sixteen-year-old nephew

Oshin, brother of Het'um, immediately marched against Bularghu to retaliate and vanquished him, forcing him to leave Cilicia. Bulargu was executed by Oljeitu for his crime at the request of the Armenians.[39] Oshin was crowned new king of Cilician Armenia upon his return to Tarsus.[37]

The Het'umids continued ruling an unstable Cilicia until the assassination of

Lusignan dynasty, but could not resist attacks from the Mamluks.[40]

Demise of Cilician Armenia

Constantin III of Armenia on his throne with the Hospitallers. "Les chevaliers de Saint-Jean-de-Jerusalem rétablissant la religion en Arménie", 1844 painting by Henri Delaborde
.
Adana Vilayet, retained a substantial Armenian population until the Armenian genocide
.

Decline and fall with the Lusignan dynasty

There had always been close relations between the Armenians and the

Lusignans, who, by the 12th century, were already established in the eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus. Had it not been for their presence in Cyprus, the kingdom of Cilician Armenia may have, out of necessity, established itself on the island.[41] In 1342, Levon's cousin Guy de Lusignan, was anointed king as Constantine II, King of Armenia. Guy de Lusignan and his younger brother John were considered pro-Latin and deeply committed to the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church in the Levant. As kings, the Lusignans attempted to impose Catholicism and the European ways. The Armenian nobles largely accepted this, but the peasantry opposed the changes, which eventually led to civil strife.[42]

From 1343 to 1344, a time when the Armenian population and its feudal rulers refused to adapt to the new Lusignan leadership and its policy of Latinizing the Armenian Church, Cilicia was again invaded by the Mamluks, who were intent on territorial expansion.

King Levon V, his daughter Marie, and her husband Shahan had taken refuge, put an end to the kingdom.[43] The final king, Levon V, was granted safe passage and arrived in Castille seeking assistance from the King John I of Castile to recover his kingdom. While in Castille, he was granted the title of Lord of Madrid and other cities. He left Castille for France at the death of John I and died in exile in Paris in 1393, after having called in vain for another crusade.[42] In 1396, Levon's title and privileges were transferred to James I, his cousin and king of Cyprus. The title of King of Armenia was thus united with the titles of King of Cyprus and King of Jerusalem.[45] The title has also been claimed indirectly by the House of Savoy by claiming the title King of Jerusalem and a number of other thrones.[citation needed
]

However, according to available information, one of the Armenian princes named Constantine declared himself king and continued to rule a number of regions of the country for another 48 years. Only in 1424 did the Egyptian Sultan go to war against him, defeat him and take possession of the kingdom of Armenia. Therefore, the date of the fall of the Armenian state should be considered 1424.[46]

Dispersion of the Armenian population of Cilicia

Although the Mamluks had taken over Cilicia, they were unable to hold it. Turkic tribes settled there, leading to the conquest of Cilicia led by Timur. As a result, 30,000 wealthy Armenians left Cilicia and settled in Cyprus, still ruled by the Lusignan dynasty until 1489.[42] Many merchant families also fled westward and founded or joined with existing diaspora communities in France, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, and Spain.[9] Only the humbler Armenians remained in Cilicia. They nevertheless maintained their foothold in the region throughout Turkic rule.

In the 16th century, Cilicia fell under

Adana Vilayet in the 17th century. Cilicia was one of the most important regions for the Ottoman Armenians, because it managed to preserve Armenian character well throughout the years.[9][47] In 1909, Cilician Armenians were massacred in Adana.[47] Descendants of the remaining Cilician Armenians have been dispersed in the Armenian diaspora, and the Holy See of Cilicia is based in Antelias, Lebanon. The lion, emblem of the Cilician Armenian state, remains a symbol of Armenian statehood to this day, featured on the Coat of arms of Armenia
.

Cilician Armenian society

Culture

completed in 1268.

Demographically, Cilician Armenia was heterogeneous with a population of Armenians who constituted the ruling class, and also Greeks, Jews, Muslims, and various Europeans.[48] The multi-ethnic population, as well as commercial and political links with Europeans, particularly France, brought important new influences on Armenian culture.[48] The Cilician nobility adopted many aspects of Western European life, including chivalry, fashion, and the use of French Christian names. The structure of Cilician society became more synonymous with Western feudalism than to the traditional nakharar system of Armenia.[9] In fact, during the Cilician period, Western titles such as baron and constable replaced their Armenian equivalents nakharar and sparapet.[9][48] European tradition was adopted for the knighting of Armenian nobles, while jousts and tournaments similar to those in Europe had become popular in Cilician Armenia. The extent of Western influence over Cilician Armenia is also reflected by the incorporation of two new letters (Ֆ ֆ = "f" and Օ օ = "o") and various Latin-based words into the Armenian language.[48]

In other areas, there was more hostility to the new Western trends. Above all, most ordinary Armenians frowned on conversion to Roman Catholicism or Greek Orthodoxy. Cultural influence was not merely one-way, however; Cilician Armenians had an important impact on Crusaders returning to the West, most notably with their architectural traditions. Europeans incorporated elements of Armenian castle-building, learned from Armenian masons in the Crusader states, as well as some elements of church architecture.

Hromkla in the thirteenth century.[9]

Economy

Coin of the Cilician Armenian kingdom, ca. 1080–1375.

Cilician Armenia had become a prosperous state due to its strategic position on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. It was located at the juncture of many trade routes linking Central Asia and the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. The kingdom was thus important in the spice trade, as well as livestock, hides, wool, and cotton. In addition, important products such as timber, grain, wine, raisins, and raw silk were also exported from the country and finished cloth and metal products from the West were made available.[9]

During the reign of King Levon, the economy of Cilician Armenia progressed greatly and became heavily integrated with Western Europe. He secured agreements with

Catalans, and granted them certain privileges such as tax exemptions in return for their business. The three primary harbours of the Armenian Kingdom, which were vital to its economy and defense, were the fortified coastal sites at Ayas and Korikos, and the river emporium of Mopsuestia. The latter, situated on two strategic caravan routes, was the last fully navigable port to the Mediterranean on the Pyramus River and the location of warehouses licensed by the Armenians to the Genoese.[5] Important European merchant communities and colonies came into existence, with their own churches, courts of law, and trading houses.[50] As French became the secondary language of Cilician nobility, the secondary language for Cilician commerce had become Italian due to the three Italian city-states' extensive involvement in the Cilician economy.[9] Marco Polo, for example, set out on his journey to China from Ayas in 1271.[50]

In the thirteenth century, under the rule of Toros, Cilician Armenia already struck its own coins. Gold and silver coins, called dram and tagvorin, were struck at the royal mints of Sis and Tarsus. Foreign coins such as the Italian ducat, florin, and zecchino, the Greek besant, the Arab dirham, and the French livre were also accepted by merchants.[9]

Religion

The St. Gregory the Illuminator Armenian Cathedral at the Holy See of Cilicia in Antelias, Lebanon.

The Catholicosate of the Armenian Apostolic Church followed its people in taking refuge outside the Armenian highlands, which had turned into a battleground of Byzantine and Seljuk contenders. Its seat was first transferred to

Hromkla in 1149. During King Levon I's rule, the Catholicos was located in distant Hromkla. He was assisted by fourteen bishops in administering the Armenian Church in the kingdom, a number which grew in later years. The archbishops' seats were located in Tarsus, Sis, Anazarba, Lambron, and Mamistra. There existed up to sixty monastic houses in Cilicia, although the exact locations of the majority of them remain unclear.[9]

In 1198, the Catholicos of Sis,

John of Monte Corvino himself arrived in Cilician Armenia in 1288.[51]

Het'um II became a Franciscan friar after his abdication. The Armenian historian Nerses Balients was a Franciscan and an advocate of union with the Latin Church. The papal claim of primacy did not contribute positively to the efforts for unity between the Churches.[52] Mkhitar Skewratsi, the Armenian delegate at the council in Acre in 1261, summed the Armenian frustration in these words:

Whence does the Church of Rome derive the power to pass judgment on the other Apostolic sees while she herself is not subject to their judgments? We ourselves [the Armenians] have indeed the authority to bring you [the Catholic Church] to trial, following the example of the Apostles, and you have no right to deny our competency.[52]

After the sacking of Hromkla by the Mamluks in 1293, the Catholicosate was transferred to Sis, the capital of the Cilician Kingdom. Again, in 1441, long after the fall of the kingdom, the Armenian Catholicos of Sis,

Echmiadzin, and marginalized Sis.[53]

See also

Explanatory notes

  • a Claude Mutafian in Le Royaume Arménien de Cilicie, p. 55, describes "the Mongol alliance" entered into by the king of Armenia and the Franks of Antioch ("the King of Armenia decided to engage into the Mongol alliance, an intelligence that the Latin barons lacked, except for Antioch"), and "the Franco-Mongol collaboration."
  • b Claude Lebedel in Les Croisades describes the alliance of the Franks of Antioch and Tripoli with the Mongols: (in 1260) "the Frank barons refused an alliance with the Mongols, except for the Armenians and the Prince of Antioch and Tripoli".
  • c Amin Maalouf in The Crusades through Arab eyes is extensive and specific on the alliance (page numbers refer to the French edition): “The Armenians, in the person of their king Hetoum, sided with the Mongols, as well as Prince Bohemond, his son-in-law. The Franks of Acre however adopted a position of neutrality favourable to the muslims” (p. 261), “Bohemond of Antioch and Hethoum of Armenia, principal allies of the Mongols” (p. 265), “Hulagu (…) still had enough strength to prevent the punishment of his allies [Bohemond and Hethoum]” (p. 267).

Citations

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  2. ^ a b Bornozyan, S. V.; Zulalyan, Manvel [in Armenian] (1976). Հայ Ժողովրդի Պատմություն, Հ. 3. [History of the Armenian People. Vol. 3] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences. pp. 672, 724. Կիլիկյան հայկական պետության ծաղկան ժամանակաշրջանում՝ XIII դարում, նրա տարածությունը կազմում էր 40.000 քառ. կմ, իսկ բնակչության թիվը անցնում էր մեկ միլիոնից։ [...] Կիլիկիայի քաղաքներում ու նավահանգիստներում էր կենտրոնացված Կիլիկիայի մեկ միլիոն բնակչության համարյա կեսը։
  3. ^ "Landmarks in Armenian history". Internet Archive. Retrieved June 22, 2010. "1080 A.D. Rhupen, cousin of the Bagratonian kings, sets up on Mount Taurus (overlooking the Mediterranean Sea) the kingdom of New Armenia which lasts 300 years."
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  23. OCLC 729872723.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link
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  26. ^ .
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  28. ^ "The king of Armenia and the Prince of Antioch went to the military camp of the Tatars, and they all went off to take Damascus". Le Templier de Tyr. Quoted in Rene Grousset, Histoire des Croisade, III, p. 586.
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  30. .
  31. .
  32. .
  33. .
  34. ^ .
  35. .
  36. .
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  40. .
  41. .
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  43. ^ .
  44. .
  45. ^ Hadjilyra, Alexander-Michael (2009). The Armenians of Cyprus. New York: Kalaydjian Foundation. p. 12.
  46. ^ https://armenianhouse.org/suqiasyan/cilicia/armenian-state-law.html. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  47. ^ .
  48. ^ .
  49. .
  50. ^ .
  51. ^ Luisetto. Arméniens et autres Chrétiens, p. 98.
  52. ^ .
  53. .

Further reading

  • Hovannisian, Richard G. and Simon Payaslian (eds.) Armenian Cilicia. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2008.
  • Luisetto, Frédéric (2007). Arméniens et autres Chrétiens d'Orient sous la domination Mongole. Geuthner. p. 262. .

External links