Armenian national movement
History of Armenia |
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Timeline • Origins • Etymology |
The Armenian national movement[1][2][3] (Armenian: Հայ ազգային-ազատագրական շարժում Hay azgayin-azatagrakan sharzhum)[note 1] included social, cultural, but primarily political and military movements that reached their height during World War I and the following years, initially seeking improved status for Armenians in the Ottoman and Russian Empires but eventually attempting to achieve an Armenian state.
Influenced by the
Starting in the late 1880s, the movement engaged in
During
By 1920, the Bolshevik Government in Russia and Ankara Government had successfully come to power in their respective countries. Turkish forces had successfully occupied the western half of Armenia, while the Red Army invaded and annexed the Republic of Armenia in December 1920. A friendship treaty was signed between Bolshevik Russia and Kemalist Turkey in 1921. The formerly Russian-controlled parts of Armenia were mostly annexed by the Soviet Union, in parts of which the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic was established. Hundreds of thousands of genocide refugees found themselves in the Middle East, Greece, France and the US giving start to a new era of the Armenian diaspora. Soviet Armenia existed until 1991, when the Soviet Union disintegrated and the current (Third) Republic of Armenia was established.
Origins
In 1836, Russifican, Russian cultural advances included “limited” Russian reforms. Russia targeted the Armenian Church.[27] Russia curtailed the Church's advances in the society.[27]
In 1839, attempting to stem the tide of
In 1863, Ottoman Armenians were introduced to a set of major reforms as an extension of Tanzimat. The
1860 and onward, the number of Armenian schools, philanthropic and patriotic organizations multiplied in the Ottoman Empire.[32] The initial aim of Protestant missionaries were the conversion of the Muslims and Jews, but soon they became involved with Protestant Reformation of the Orthodox Armenians. The Armenian subjects of the Empire influenced by the Armenian Diaspora, the network of congregations and schools of the Protestant missionaries throughout the Ottoman Empire begin to rethink their position in the world. In 1872, the journalist Grigor Ardzruni from Ottoman Empire said “Yesterday we were an ecclesiastical community, today we are patriots, tomorrow we will be a nation of workers and thinkers.”[32] A parallel development occurred in Russian Armenia.[33] Before 1840, Armenian journals were mainly in the hands of the clergy.[34] This was changed. Along with the schools, the press played an important educational role and pointed the way to insurrection.[34] From the first day when Rev. William Goodell settled in Constantinople in 1831 to the end of World War I, the missionaries made considerable contributions to the education of Armenians. The European intellectual currents such as ideas of the French Revolution were transmitted through the 23,000 Armenian students within 127 Protestant congregations with 13,000 communicants, and 400 schools.[35]
In the 1880s, after the Russian defeat in the Crimean War in 1856 and the Polish rebellion of 1861, Tsar Alexander II increased Russification to reduce the threat of future rebellions (Russia was populated by many minority groups). Tsar Alexander II attempted to prevent self-determinationistic tendencies and separatism. Armenian language, schools were targeted. Russia wanted to replace with Russian schools and Russian educational materials.[27]
National Revival
The discovery of Urartu has come to play a significant role in 19th and 20th-century Armenian nationalism.[36]
Kagik Ozanyan claims that Tanzimat regulations, helped the formation of an Armenian political strata and incited the Armenian national spirit, which was aligned with the nation building through revolution aligned with the French Revolution perspective.[37][unreliable source?] The Russian Consul General to Ottoman Empire, General Mayewski, recorded the following[38]
The rebellion of Armenians resulted from the following three causes:
(1). Their known evolution in political matters (Issue of Civilizations),
(2). Development of ideas of nationalism, salvation and independence in Armenian opinion (Revolution Perspective),
(3). Supporting of these ideas by Western governments and publication through the inspiration and efforts of Armenian clerical men (Armenian Question).[38]
The development of ideas of nationalism, salvation and independence, established during the late 19th century, along with the other national movements, as a nascent Armenian intelligentsia promoted the use of these new concepts in society with a particularly an Armenian import. The first wave of these concepts were developed by an Armenian intelligentsia which had studied in Western Europe under the influence of the French Revolution (1789). They were espoused a democratic-liberal ideology and the concept of the rights of man. The second wave come with the emergence of Russian revolutionary thought. At the end of the 19th century, the movement was based on a socialist ideology, specifically in its Marxist variant, specifically ARF.[39] There was a major problem, the materialism and class struggle (Marxist variant) did not directly apply to the socioeconomics of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire as much as to those in the Russian Armenia that had already achieved the Industrial Revolution.[citation needed]
Armenian majority
A basic form of "
Founding
The development of ideas of nationalism, salvation and independence, established during the late 19th century, gathered momentum with the establishment of
On March 3, 1872, 46 Armenians came together to build “Union of Salvation (Armenian)” (different from the Russian Union of Salvation). The organization declared “Gone is our honor; our churches have been violated; they kidnapped our brides and our youth; they have taken away our rights and try to exterminate our nation..”[40] On April 26, 1872, villages around Van send a request “In order to save ourselves from these evils, we are prepared to follow you even if we must shed blood or die. We are ready to go wherever... If the alternative to our present condition is to become Russified, let us be Russified together; if it is to be emigration, let us emigrate; if we are to die, let us die”[41] This organization had not only direct contact with the Russian government but with certain Russian organization.[42] These Russian organizations had goals to liberate the Ottoman Armenians from Ottoman Empire.[42] Union of Salvation served a major step toward the formation of the first Armenian political party, the Armenakan.[42]
In 1881 Erzurum; Ottoman Armenians educated with the European Way began to make attempts in forming organizations –
In 1885, the "Armenian Democratic Liberal Party" was established in
In 1887, the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (Hentchak,
In 1889 the
In 1890 the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (“ARF” or Dashnaktsutiun) was founded in Tiflis.[47] Its members armed themselves into fedayee groups to defend Armenian villages from widespread oppression, attacks and persecution of the Armenians. It being seen as the only solution to save the people from Ottoman oppression and massacres. its initial aim was to guarantee reforms in the Armenian provinces and to gain eventual autonomy.[citation needed]
During 1880-1890 the local communication channels were developed. The organizations were fully functional under Ankara, Amasya, Çorum, Diyarbakır, Yozgat, and Tokat. In 1893 they began to use wall newspapers (newspapers like billboards) directed toward the non Armenian subjects. The main theme of these materials were people should take control of their own life against the oppressors.[48] These ideological communicants did not have any effect on the Muslims. These activities ended with clashes between revolutionaries and Ottoman police. Generally resulted with the jail time. Sultan panicked, and local authorities act against them as they were cutting telegraph wires, bombing the odd government buildings. Britain or European powers concluded that however if there would be more interference these would end with religious fanaticism, and a civil war (massacres) would occur.[49]
Notable figures
The partisan movement was established by these leaders.[citation needed]
- ARF: Stepan Zorian, Christapor Mikaelian, Simon Zavarian
- Armenakan: Mekertich Portukalian
- Hentchak: Avetis Nazarbekian, Mariam Vardanian, Gevorg Gharadjian, Ruben Khan-Azat, Christopher Ohanian, Gabriel Kafian and Manuel Manuelian
There were many notables besides the "founding leaders" listed. The classifications given below refer to the titles for which they are mostly remembered today. They served in multiple duties and ranks.[citation needed]
- Aram Manukian, "key figure", politician, general.
- Andranik Ozanian, "key figure", military commander, fedayee leader
- Drastamat Kanayan, "key figure"
- Karekin Pastermadjian, "key figure," politician , military commander, fedayee leader
- Aghbiur Serob, military commander
- Arabo, fedayee leader
- Sose Mayrig, fedayee leader
- Garegin Nzhdeh, politician, military commander
- Kevork Chavush, fedayee leader
- Sebastatsi Murad, fedayee leader
- Paramaz, fedayee, political activist
- Armenak Yekarian, fedayee leader, political activist
- Panos Terlemezian, fedayee leader
- Krikor Amirian
- Alexander Khatisian, politician, journalist
- Hovhannes Katchaznouni, political activist, politician
- Simon Vratsian, political activist, politician
- Movses Silikyan, military commander,
- Hovsep Aivazian, key figure", military commander, fedayee leader
The Church
Armenian nationalism and Armenian religion (the Armenian Apostolic Church, a
The main voices of the movement were secular, as close to the turn of the century, Massis (published in the capitol), the Hiusissapile and Ardzvi Vaspurkan (published in the Van) became the main national organs (journals).
Beginning with 1863, Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople began to share his powers with the Armenian National Assembly and his powers were limited by the Armenian National Constitution. He perceived the changes as erosion of his community.[51] Armenian religious leaders played a key roles in the revolutionary movement. The Patriarch of Constantinople Mkrtich Khrimian was an important figure.[52] Mkrtich Khrimian transferred to Jerusalem in his later years, although this was actually an exile.
Great Powers, Russo-Turkish War
Beginning in the mid-19th century, the Great Powers took issue with the Empire's treatment of its Christian minorities and increasingly pressured extend equal rights to all its citizens. Following the violent suppression of Christians in the uprisings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria and Serbia in 1875, the Great Powers invoked the 1856 Treaty of Paris by claiming that it gave them the right to intervene and protect the Ottoman Empire's Christian minorities. By the late 1870s, the Greeks, along with several other Christian nations in the Balkans, frustrated with their conditions, had, with the help of the Powers, broken free of Ottoman rule. The Armenians, on the other hand, received less interest and no support that wasn't later withdrawn from the Great Powers and remained, by and large, stagnant during these years, earning them the title of 'millet-i sadika' or the "loyal millet".[53]
Armenian position changed as an intellectual class began to emerge among Armenian society. At the same time, the Armenian patriarchate of Constantinople,
June 1878, Great Britain was troubled with Russia's holding on to so much Ottoman territory in the "Treaty of San Stefano" and forced the parties for a new negotiations with the convening of the
In 1880 Armenians especially encouraged by the prime minister Gladstone touched the Armenian issue with the words “To serve Armenia is to serve the Civilization. June 11, 1880, The great powers sent to porte an “Identic Note” which asked for the enforcement of the article 61.[55] This followed on January 2, 1881, with a British Circular on Armenia to other Powers.[55]
The "Young Armenia Society" believed that the Russians would assist in the creation of an autonomous Armenian province under Russian rule.[46]
The ARF is often accused of having tactics, even today viewed as still being, aimed at convincing Western governments and diplomatic circles to sponsor the party's demands.[56]
The Armenian national movement had discovered through their revolutionary movement that neither
Armenian diaspora
Significant European and American movements began with the Armenian diaspora in France and in the U.S. as early as in the 1890s. The previous Armenian migrations were minor or and had not been statistically significant.[citation needed]
In 1885, the Armenian Patriotic Society of Europe was established in Chesilton Road, Fulham, with its headquarters there. Its goal was that the Armenian diaspora should help those in their native land, both financially and raise Armenian political consciousness about its subject condition. Various political parties and benevolent unions, such as branches for the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, the Social-Democrat Henchagian party, and the Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU) which was initially founded in Constantinople, were established wherever there was a considerable number of Armenians.[citation needed]
The Armenian diaspora played a significant role in every stage such as Armenian Revolutionary Federation in diaspora did not forgive what they saw as betrayal of the 'Free, Independent Armenia' (the motto of the party) and campaigned against the Soviet state in a variety of ways.[citation needed]
Activities (Ottoman Empire)
Abdul Hamid II Era
The emergence of the Armenian Partisan Movement in the early 1880s and the armed struggle by the late 1880s fall into the Sultan Abdul Hamid II's reign. Abdul Hamid II come to rule where he oversaw a period of decline in the power and extent of the Empire. He ruled from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed on 27 April 1909.[citation needed]
Armed movement
The partisan movement organized around Armenian centers, such that before ARF replaced the Armenakans, Armenakans mainly operated in and around the city of Van. There are advantages to look events using the regions as the groups were organized regional bases.[citation needed]
Capitol
The Kum Kapu demonstration occurred in the Kumkapı district of Constantinople on July 27, 1890. The cause of the demonstrations were "..to awaken the maltreated Armenians and to make the Sublime Porte fully aware of the miseries of the Armenians."[57] The Hunchaks had come to a conclusion that the demonstrations at Kum Kapu were unsuccessful.[58] Similar demonstration on a lesser scale followed throughout most of the 1890s.[59]
The
The
Van/Bitlis Vilayets (Lake Van Region)
Certain geographical and ethnic factors favored Van as a center. The lake van is the frontier to Russia and Persia, which assistance from was easily accessible.[40]
In May 1889,
The Defense of Van was the Armenian population in Van defense against the Ottoman Empire in June, 1896.[citation needed]
The Khanasor Expedition was the Armenian militia's response on July 25, 1897, to the Defense of Van, where Mazrik tribe ambushed a squad of Armenian defenders and mercilessly slaughtered them.[citation needed]
The
Diyarbekir/Aleppo Vilayets
1862 was important for Zeitun. The Armenians of Zeitun had historically enjoyed a period of high autonomy in the Ottoman Empire until the nineteenth century. In the first half of the nineteenth century, the central government decided to bring this region of the empire under tighter control. This strategy ultimately proved ineffective. In the summer of 1862 the Ottomans sent a military contingent of 12,000 men to Zeitun to reassert government control. The force, however, was held at bay by the Armenians and, through French mediation, the first Zeitun resistance was brought to a close. The Zeitun Armenian's gave inspiration to the ideas of creating an Armenian state in Cilicia.[63]
The
Between the years 1891 and 1895, activists from the Armenian Social Democrat Hunchakian Party visited Cilicia, and established a new branch in Zeitun. The
In spring 1902, a representative of the ARF, Vahan Manvelyan, was sent to in Sason with the purpose of stopping the insignificant skirmishes, but only irritating the Muslims. In February 1903, Sofia, at the III Congress ARF, it was decided to assign Sason of committee fighting groups.
Armenian reform program
During 1880 - 1881, while the Armenian national liberation movement was in its early stage; lack of outside support and inability to maintain a trained, organized Kurdish force diminished Kurdish aspirations. However, two prominent Kurdish families (tribes) mounted opposition to the empire, based more from an ethno-nationalistic stand point. The Badr Khans were successionists while the Sayyids of Nihiri were autonomists. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 was followed in 1880 - 1881 by the attempt of Shaykh Ubayd Allah of Nihri to found an "independent Kurd principality" around Ottoman-Persian border (including the Van Vilayet) where Armenian population was significant. Shaykh Ubayd Allah of Nihri gathered 20,000 fighters.[64] Lacking discipline, his man left the ranks after pillaging and acquiring riches from the villages in the region (indiscriminately, including Armenian villages). Shaykh Ubayd Allah of Nihri captured by the Ottoman forces in 1882 and this movement ended.[64]
Security, Reform, Order
The Kurdish (force, rebels, bandits) sacked neighboring towns and villages with impunity.[65]
The central assumption of the Hamidiye system—Kurdish tribes (
In 1892, first time a trained and organized Kurdish force encouraged by the Sultan Abdul Hamid II. It was established by and named after Sultan. The Hamidiye corps or Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments were well-armed, irregular, majority
Kurdish chieftain also taxed the population of the region in sustaining these units, which Armenian's perceived this Kurdish taxation as an exploitation. When Armenian spokesmen confronted the Kurdish chieftain (issue of double taxation), it brought about enmity between both populations. The Hamidiye cavalry harassed and assaulted Armenians.[72]
In 1908, after the overthrow of Sultan, the Hamidiye Cavalry was disbanded as an organized force, but as they were “tribal forces” before official recognition, they stayed as “tribal forces” after dismemberment. The Hamidiye Cavalry is described as a military disappointment and a failure because of its contribution to tribal feuds.[73]
Hamidian massacres
A major role in the
The Hamidian massacres were brought to an end through mediation by the Great Powers. However instead of Armenian autonomy in these regions, Kurds (Kurdish tribal chiefs) retained much of their autonomy and power.[74] The Abdulhamid made little attempt to alter the traditional power structure of “segmented, agrarian Kurish societies” – agha, shayk, and tribal chief.[74] Because of their geographical position at the southern and eastern fringe of the empire and mountainous topography, and limited transportation and communication system.[74] The state had little access to these provinces and were forced to make informal agreements with tribal chiefs, for instance the Ottoman qadi and mufti did not have jurisdiction over religious law which bolstered Kurdish authority and autonomy.[74]
Abdul Hamid II's position
Sultan Abdul Hamid II wanted to reinforce the territorial integrity of the embattled Ottoman Empire, reasserted Pan-Islamism as a state ideology.[75] Abdul Hamid II perceived the Ottoman Armenians to be an extension of foreign hostility, a means by which Europe could "get at our most vital places and tear out our very guts."[75]
Second Constitutional Era
The Armenians supported the Young Turk Revolution, whose concepts were present in varying proportions among Armenians at the turn of the 20th century[76]
After the revolution, the Ottoman Empire in the
ARF, previously outlawed, became the main representative of the Armenian community in the Ottoman Empire, replacing the pre-1908 Armenian elite, which had been composed of merchants, artisans, and clerics who had seen their future in obtaining more privileges within the boundaries of the state's version of Ottomanism.[77] During the same time the Armenian Revolutionary Federation was moving out of this context and developing, what was just a normal extension of its national freedom concept, the concept of the "Independent Armenian State". With this national transformation ARF's activities become a national cause.[78] ARF, in the early 20th century was socialists, and marxist which can be seen from the party's first program.[79]
Armed movement
Van/Bitlis Vilayets (Lake Van Region)
At the 1907 Battle of Sulukh, Kevork Chavush was critically wounded on May 25, 1907, during a large firefight with the Ottoman army in Sulukh, Mush. Kevork Chavush escaped the fighting. Two days later his body was found in Kyosabin-Bashin on May 27 under a bridge.[citation needed]
Balkans
The Armenians settled between the 6th and the 11th century in the
On October 20, the Macedonian-Adrianopolitan militia and Andranik's volunteer detachment, tight circle around Edirne and surrendered Yaver Pasha's forces. On November 4, 1912, the Macedonian-Adrianopolitan militia with the support of Andranik's volunteer detachment defeated numerically exceeding Turks near Momchilgrad.[citation needed]
On January 6, 1913, in a small town church in
The Ottoman parliament
The new parliament comprised 142 Turks, 60
The reform package
The politics in Istanbul was centered around trying to find a solution to the demands of Arab and Armenian reformist groups. 19th century politics of Ottoman Empire dealt with the decentralize demands of the Balkan nations. The same pattern was originating from the eastern provinces. With most of the Christian population having already left the Empire after the Balkan Wars, a redefinition of Ottoman politics was in place with a greater emphasis on Islam as a binding force. The choice of this policy should also be considered as external forces (imperialists) were Christians. It was a policy of "them against us".[citation needed]
in 1913
The reform package was signed in February 1914, between the Ottoman Empire represented by Grand Vezir Said Halim Pasha and Russia. L. C. Westenenk, an administrator for the Dutch East Indies, and Major Hoff, a major in the Norwegian Army, were selected as the first two inspectors. Hoff was in Van when the war broke out, just as Westenenk was preparing to depart for his post in Erzerum.[82][83][84]
Committee of Union and Progress's position
Once in power, the Committee of Union and Progress introduced a number of new initiatives intended to promote the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. CUP advocated a program of orderly reform under a strong central government, as well as the exclusion of all foreign influence. CUP promoted industrialization and administrative reforms. Administrative reforms of provincial administration quickly led to a higher degree of centralization.[citation needed]
Activities (Russian Empire)
Edict on Armenian church property 1903-1904
The tsar's Russification programme reached its peak with the decree of June 12, 1903, confiscating the property of the Armenian Church.
As a result, the ARF leadership decided to actively defend Armenian churches.
Armenian-Azeri massacres 1904-1905
Unrest in Transcaucasia, which also included major strikes, reached a climax with the widespread uprisings throughout the Russian Empire known as the
Tribune of People, 1912
In January 1912, a total of 159 Armenians were charged with membership of an anti-"Revolutionary" organisation. During the revolution Armenian revolutionaries were split into "Old Dashnaks", allied with the Kadets and "Young Dashnaks" aligned with the SRs. To determine the position of Armenians all forms of Armenian national movement put into trial. The entire Armenian intelligentsia, including writers, physicians, lawyers, bankers, and even merchants" on trial.[87] When the tribune finished its work, 64 charges were dropped and the rest were either imprisoned or exiled for varying periods[87]
Activities during World War I
Beginning at the end of July and ending on August 2, 1914, the
Armed movement
The
Initial
In November 1914, Drastamat Kanayan had the 2nd battalion of the Armenian volunteers. At the Bergmann Offensive, the 2nd battalion of the Armenian volunteers engaged in battle for the first time, near Bayazid. In the course of a bloody combat which lasted twenty-four hours, commander of the battalion, was seriously wounded. From that day to March of the following year, Drastamat Kanayan remained in critical condition.[citation needed]
The
On December 16, 1914, the Ottoman Empire dismantled the
The first year
Between April 15–18 of 1915, the brigade of Armenian volunteers under the command of Andranik valiantly participated in the Battle of Dilman of the Persian Campaign.[citation needed]
Drastamat Kanayan though remained in critical condition, his battalion led into eleven battles in the neighborhood of Alashkert, Toutakh, and Malashkert, until Drastamat Kanayan recovered and returned to resume the command.[citation needed]
The
On May 6, 1915, Andranik was the commanding officer of the first Armenian volunteer detachment (about 1,200 soldiers), which helped lift the
On June 15, 1915,
"You can only hang our bodies, but not our ideology. ...You will see tomorrow on the Eastern horizon a Socialist Armenia."[104]
In July 1915, Khetcho (Catchik), Karekin Pastermadjian's assistant and commander, died on the shores of Lake Van[citation needed]
-
The Twenty Martyrs
-
Volunteer soldier
The second year
The biggest achievement of the first year was the Armenian governing of the
Andranik commanded a battalion that defeated Halil Pasha during the Battle of Bitlis in 1916.[citation needed]
Negotiations with the French for returning Armenian refugees to their homes in Cilicia were performed with leadership of
The third year
The February Revolution of 1917 caused chaos among Russian soldiers in the Caucasus Front and by the end of that year most Russian soldiers left the front and returned to their homes. In July 1917 six Armenian regiments were created in the Caucasus Front with support of Armenian organizations in Petrograd and Tiflis. As of October 1917 two Armenian divisions were already created, with Tovmas Nazarbekian at their head. As of early 1918 only few thousand Armenian volunteers under the command of two hundred officers opposed the Turkish offenses.[citation needed]
In the spring of 1917, Karekin Pastermadjian and Dr.
On December 5, 1917, the
Last year
In 1918, the Russian authorities made Andranik a Major General and decorated him six times for gallantry, the source stated as general Antranik as a command of the Armenian and Russian forces against those of the Turks; was in 59 engagements, several horses shot under him but kept fighting after the czar's army collapsed.[110]
The roots of the first national republic was achieved by the Armenians under Russian control which devised a national congress in October 1917. The convention in Tiflis was concluded in September 1917 with delegates from former Romanov realm (203), which 103 belonged to the ARF. On March 3, 1918, the Russians followed the armistice of Erzincan with the
Between March and April 1918 Andranik was the governor of the Administration for Western Armenia.[111]
Karekin Pastermadjian was assigned as the ambassador of the First Republic of Armenia to the United States in Washington, D.C.[citation needed]
The original plan for the Armenian army was to consist of Tovmas Nazarbekian's 60,000 soldiers with Andranik Pasha's 30,000 fedayees. However after the splitting of the
After the Ottoman Empire took vast swathes of territory and imposed harsh conditions, the new republic was left with 10,000 square kilometers.[112] Andranik's military leadership was instrumental in allowing the Armenian population of Van to escape the Ottoman Army and flee to Eastern Armenia.[citation needed]
By July inter ethnic warfare had started in
Andranik and his troops were 40 km (25 mi) from
On July 26, 1918, the
The Baku forces mainly commanded by Colonel Avetisov.[117] Under his command were about 6,000 Centrocaspian Dictatorship troops of the Baku Army.[117] The vast majority of the troops in this force were Armenians, though there were some Russians among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of ARF affiliation.[118] Centrocaspian Dictatorship fell on September 15, 1918, when the Ottoman-Azerbaijani forces took control of Baku.[119]
Path to Unified Armenia
On October 30, the
In 1919,
Avetis Aharonyan signed the Treaty of Sèvres formulating the "Wilsonian Armenia" in direct collaboration with the Armenian Diaspora. The Treaty of Sèvres was signed between the Allied and Associated Powers and Ottoman Empire at Sèvres, France on August 10, 1920. The treaty included a clause on Armenia: it made all parties signing the treaty recognize Armenia as a free and independent state. The drawing of definite borders was, however, left to President Woodrow Wilson and the United States State Department, and was only presented to Armenia on November 22. Wilsonian Armenia refers to the boundary configuration of the Armenian state in the Treaty of Sèvres, drawn by Woodrow Wilson.[122]
Activities during Interwar period
Territorial disputes of Armenia
On September 24 and the Turkish–Armenian War began. Negotiations were then carried out between Karabekir and a peace delegation led by Alexander Khatisian in Alexandropol; although Karabekir’s terms were extremely harsh the Armenian delegation had little recourse but to agree to them. The Treaty of Alexandropol was thus signed on December 3, 1920, after the Armenian government had fallen to a concurrent Soviet invasion on December 2.[123]
Azerbaijan claimed most of the territory Armenia was sitting on, demanding all or most parts of the former Russian provinces of
(Zangezur).In May 1919, Dro led an expeditionary unit that was successful in establishing Armenian administrative control in Nakhichevan [125]
Sovietization and exile of Armenian leaders
However, despite ARF's tight grip on power
The actual transfer of power took place on December 2 in Yerevan. The Armenian leadership approved an ultimatum, presented to it by the Soviet plenipotentiary Boris Legran. Armenia decided to join the Soviet sphere. The ARF was banned, its leaders exiled and many of its members dispersed to other parts of the world.[citation needed]
The Treaty of Kars was signed on October 13, 1921, and ratified in Yerevan on September 11, 1922. Treaty established contemporary borders between Turkey and the South Caucasus states on the count of Armenian lands. Armenian Minister of Foreign Affairs Askanaz Mravian and Minister of Interior Poghos Makintsian signed the Treaty of Kars, which helped to conclude (for the moment) the territorial disputes originate after the Caucasus Campaign as a whole.[citation needed]
Cilicia and French Armenian Legion
In January 1920, Turkish National Movement advanced his troops into Marash where the Battle of Marash ensued against the French Armenian Legion. The battle resulted in the massacres of 5,000 – 12,000 Armenians, spelling the end of the remaining Armenian population in the region.[126]
France disbanded the French Armenian Legion shortly after the war started. One of the Armenian Legion members, Sarkis Torossian, wrote in his diary that he suspected the French forces gave weapons and ammunition to the Kemalists to allow the French army safe passage out of Cilicia.[127]
The Cilicia Peace Treaty between France and the Turkish National Movement was signed on 9 March 1921. It was intended to end the Franco-Turkish war, but failed to do so and was replaced in October 1921 with the Treaty of Ankara.[citation needed]
Republic of Mountainous Armenia, 1922
On 18 February 1921, the ARF led an anti-Soviet rebellion in Yerevan and seized power. The ARF controlled Yerevan and the surrounding regions for almost 42 days before being defeated by the numerically superior Red Army troops later in April 1921. The leaders of the rebellion then retreated into the Syunik region. On 26 April 1921, the 2nd Pan-Zangezurian congress, held in
After months of fierce battles with the Red Army, the Republic of Mountainous Armenia capitulated in July 1921 following Soviet Russia's promises to keep the mountainous region as a part of Soviet Armenia. After losing the battle, Garegin Nzhdeh, his soldiers, and many prominent Armenian intellectuals, including leaders of the first Independent Republic of Armenia, crossed the border into neighbouring Persian city of Tabriz.[citation needed]
Operation Nemesis
Operation Nemesis was the ARF's code-name for a covert operation in the early 1920s to assassinate the Turkish planners of the Armenian genocide. Those involved with the planning and execution of the operation (including Shahan Natalie and Soghomon Tehlirian) were survivors of genocidal massacres. The Operation, between 1920 and 1922, assassinated many significant political and military figures of the Ottoman Empire, the Internal Affairs Minister of Azerbaijan and some Armenians who were working against the Armenian cause.[citation needed]
Achievements of the movement
Establishment of an Armenian State
The First Republic of Armenia was the first modern establishment of an Armenian state. The leaders of the government came from mainly the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and also other Armenian political parties who helped create the new republic. State had unquestionably Armenian color, as when it was declared out of 2,000,000 Armenian's (Russian) in the Caucasus, 1,300,000 (Russian) Armenians were to be found within the boundaries of the new Republic of Armenia, which also had 300,000 to 350,000 refugees that escaped from the Ottoman Empire.[129] Added to this Armenian population were 350,000 to 400,000 people of other nationalities.[129] There were 1,650,000 Armenians (both Russian, and Ottoman origin) of the 2,000,000 people within the borders of the new Republic which made clearly, uncontested, an Armenian state.[129]
Richard G. Hovannisian explains the conditions of the resistance:
"In the summer of 1918, the Armenian national councils reluctantly transferred from Tiflis to Yerevan to take over the leadership of the republic from the popular dictator Aram Manukian and the renowned military commander Drastamat Kanayan. It then began the daunting process of establishing a national administrative machinery in an isolated and landlocked misery. This was not the autonomy or independence which Armenian intellectuals had dreamed of and for which a generation of youth had been sacrificed. Yet, as it happened, it was here that the Armenian people were destined to continue [their] national existence."[130]
— R.G. Hovannisian
Cultural heritage
There is a Fedayees museum in Yerevan named after General Andranik Ozanian. Armenian resistance has left a symbolic dish. The "
Timeline of the movement
The timeline covers the activities of ethnic Armenian citizens of the Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire and significant European cities which had significant Armenian diaspora, such as in France as early as the 1890s. The timeline has events formulated by Social Democrat Hunchakian Party, Armenakan, Armenian Revolutionary Federation, and Armenian Patriotic Society of Europe.
The "liberation movement" as the term implies an "
The events under the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic is not covered.
References
- Notes
- Footnotes
- ^ ISBN 9780549722977.
- ISBN 9781598843361.
- ISBN 9780691151335.
- ISBN 9781412848343.
- ISBN 9781903656099.
- ISBN 9780231511339.
- ISBN 9780943071145.
- ^ Chalabian, Antranig (1988). General Andranik and the Armenian Revolutionary Movement (. Southfield, MI.
{{cite book}}
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- Armenian Review. Watertown, MA.
- ^ Giuzalian, Garnik. Hayots Heghapokhuthiunits Aratj [Before the Armenian revolution], Hushapatum H.H. Dashnaktsuthian 1890-1950 [Historical collection of the A.R. Federation 1890-1950] (Boston: H.H. Buro [Bureau of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation], 1950
- ISBN 9780253207739.
The Armenian revolution was born in a romantic haze, inspired by Russian populism, the Bulgarian revolution...
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- ^ Bournoutian. Armenian People, p. 105
- ^ a b c d (Peimani 2009, pp. 236)
- ^ Vital Cuinet, La Turquie d'Asie: géographie administrative, statistique, descriptive et raisonée de chaque province de l'Asie-Mineure, 4 vols., Paris, 1890-95.
- ^ a b c (Peimani 2009, pp. 237)
- ^ "The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire - A brief look at the adoption of Secular Laws in the Ottoman Empire with a particular focus on the Tanzimat reforms (1839-1876)" (PDF). Faith Matters.
- ^ "The Invention of Tradition as Public Image in the Late Ottoman Empire, 1808 to 1908", Selim Deringil, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Jan., 1993), pp. 3-29
- ^ Richard G. (EDT) Hovannisian The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, page 198
- ^ a b c d Edmund Herzig "Armenians Past And Present In The Making Of National Identity A Handbook" page.76
- ^ a b (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 48)
- ^ (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 51)
- ^ a b c (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 52)
- ^ G. Warneck, Outline of a History of Protestant Missions (Edinburgh and London, 1901), p. 241.
- ISBN 978-0-631-22037-4., p. 276.
- ^ Esat Uras, Tarihte Ermeniler ve Ermeni Meselesi, İstanbul 1976, 5. 463;
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- ^ a b (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 80)
- ^ (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 81)
- ^ a b c (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 82)
- ^ The Times, 10 January 1883, p. 5; ibid., 8 June 1883, p. 5
- ^ (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 85)
- ^ a b c d (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 86)
- ^ a b (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 145–147)
- ^ "Armenian Revolutionary Federation Founded, Armenian history timeline". Archived from the original on 2018-07-09. Retrieved 2006-12-25.
- ^ Sir Robert W. Graves, Storm Centres of the Near East: personal memories, 1879-1929
- ^ Graves, Storm Centres, pp. 132-139
- ^ Bilal N. Simsir, British Documents On Ottoman Armenians (1856-1880), Vol. I, Ankara 1992, pp.173. Document No. 69 (British code:F.O. 424/70, No. 134/I zikr.,)
- ^ Migirditch, Dadian. (June 1867) "La society armenienne contemporaine", in Revue des deux Mondes, pp. 803-827
- ^ (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 76)
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- ^ Haig Ajemian, Hayotz Hayrig, page 511-3; translated by Fr. Vazken Movsesian.
- ^ a b (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 84)
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- ^ Khan-Azat, op. cit., VI (February 1928), pp. 124-125
- ^ (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 119)
- ^ Hovhanissian, Richard G. (1997) The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. New York. St. Martin's Press, 218-9
- ^ (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 100)
- ^ (Nalbandian 1963, pp. 10?)
- ^ Military history: Volume 12. Empire Press. 1995. pp. xviii.
- ^ (Nalbandian 1963, p. 74)
- ^ a b (McDowall 2004, pp. 42–47)
- ^ Astourian, Stepan (2011). "The Silence of the Land: Agrarian Relations, Ethnicity, and Power," in A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire, eds. Ronald Grigor Suny, Fatma Müge Göçek, and Norman Naimark. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 58-61, 63-67.
- Shaw, Stanford J.and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977, vol. 2, p. 246.
- ^ (McDowall 2004, pp. 59)
- ^ Safrastian, Arshak. 1948 Kurds and Kurdistan. Harvill Press, pg 66.
- ^ (McDowall 2004, pp. 59–60)
- ^ (McDowall 2004, pp. 60)
- ^ (McDowall 2004, pp. 61–62)
- ISBN 0-312-10168-6.
- ^ (McDowall 2004, pp. 61)
- ^ a b c d Denise Natali. The Kurds and the State. (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2005)
- ^ a b (Taner 2006, pp. 44)
- ^ Der Minassian, Anahide, "Nationalisme et socialisme dans le Mouvement Revolutionnaire Armenien", in "LA QUESTION ARMENIENNE", Paris, 1983, pp. 73-111.
- ^ Zapotoczny, Walter S. "The Influence of the Young Turks" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
- ^ Dasnabedian, Hratch, "The ideological creed" and "The evolution of objectives" in "A BALANCE-SHEET OF THE NINETY YEARS", Beirut, 1985, pp. 73-103
- ^ Documents for the history of the ARF, II, 2nd Edition, Beirut, 1985, pp. 11-14
- ^ Philip Mansel, "Constantinople City of the Worlds Desire" quoted in Straits: The origins of the Dardanelles campaign
- ISBN 9781412833165.
- ^ (Hovannisian 1967, pp. 39)
- ^ L. C. Westenek, "Diary Concerning the Armenian Mission," Armenian Review 39 (Spring 1968), pp. 29-89.
- ^ Şeyhun, Ahmed. "Said Halim and the Armenian Reform Project of 1914," Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies. Vol. 19, No. 2 (2010), pp. 93-108.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-691-02549-0.
- ^ Ternon. Les Arméniens, pp. 159-62
- ^ a b Abraham, Richard (1990). Alexander Kerensky: The First Love of the Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press, pg. 53,54
- Taner Akcam, A Shameful Act, page 136
- ^ Richard G. Hovannisian, The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 244
- ^ a b c d e f g The Encyclopedia Americana, 1920, v.28, p.412
- ISBN 978-0-8166-0575-0
- ^ (Pasdermadjian 1918, pp. 17)
- ^ (Hovannisian 1967, pp. 43–44)
- ^ The Encyclopedia Americana, 1920, v.28, p.404
- ISBN 978-1-56859-151-3
- ^ (Pasdermadjian 1918, pp. 21)
- ^ Martin Gilbert, 2004, "The First World War," Macmillan p.108
- ^ Avetoon Pesak Hacobian, 1917, Armenia and the War, p.78
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- ^ Дж.Киракосян. Младотурки перед судом истории
- ^ Кесария
- ^ Անդրանիկ (in Armenian). Դպրոցական Մեծ Հանրագիտարան, Գիրք II. Retrieved August 3, 2012.
- ^ Харлампий Политидис; Иосиф Зая; Игорь Артёмов (1999). Рыцарь византизма (in Russian). альманах «Третий Рим». Archived from the original on January 6, 2012. Retrieved July 6, 2012.
- ^ "Tchahakir" Armenian weekly, # 1594, June 21, 2007, Cairo, p.3
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- ^ Onnig Mukhitarian, Haig Gossoian (1980). The Defense of Van, Parts 1-2. Central Executive General Society of Vasbouragan. p. 125.
- ^ Robert-Jan Dwork Holocaust: A History by Deborah and van Pelt, p 38
- ^ Stanley Elphinstone Kerr. The Lions of Marash: personal experiences with American Near East Relief, 1919-1922 p. 30
- ^ New York Times, September 2, 1927, p. 17
- ^ Cahoon, Ben (2000). "Turkey". WorldStatesmen. Retrieved July 6, 2012.
- ^ (Hovannisian 1967, pp. 198)
- ^ Hovannisian, Richard G. The Republic of Armenia: The First Year, 1918–1919. Berkeley: University of California, 1971, pp. 86–87.
- ^ "More British in Russia," The New York Times, August 17, 1918, p. 1.
- ^ Hovannisian. Republic of Armenia, pp. 88–90.
- ^ Dunsterville, Lionel Charles (1920). The adventures of Dunsterforce. E. Arnold. p. 207.
- ^ a b (Missen 1984, pp. 2766–2772)
- ^ Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951
- ISBN 978-90-8964-183-0.
- ^ America as Mandatary for Armenia (PDF). New York: American Committee for the Independence of Armenia. 1919. p. 2. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
- ^ "Asia: Journal of the American Asiatic Association" ,1919, Published by Asia Pub. Co., Volume.19 page 327
- ISBN 0-520-08804-2.
- ^ Hovannisian. Republic of Armenia, Vol. IV, pp. 394-396.
- ^ See Hovannisian. Republic of Armenia, Vol. II, p. 192, map 4.
- ^ Hovannisian. Republic of Armenia, Vol. I, pp. 243-247.
- ISBN 9780688112837. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
In the whole operation some seven or eight thousand Armenians lost their lives, a massacre which, accompanied by others in the neighbouring areas, caused consternation in the capitals of Europe.
- ^ "Robert Fisk: The forgotten holocaust". The Independent. 28 August 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2013.
- ^ Mountainous Armenia
- ^ a b c Maintenance of Peace in Armenia. United States Congress. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. USA: Govt. print. off. 1919. p. 119. Retrieved 2011-02-14.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity, p. 98, edited by Edmund Herzig, Marina Kurkchiyan
Citations
- Nalbandian, Louise (1963). The Armenian revolutionary movement; the development of Armenian political parties through the nineteenth century. Berkeley, University of California Press.
- Missen, Leslie (1984). Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix. Marshall Cavendish Corporation. pp. 2766–2772. ISBN 0-86307-181-3.
- Pasdermadjian, Garegin; Aram Torossian (1918). Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War. Hairenik Pub. Co. p. 45.
- Erickson, Edward J. (2001). ISBN 978-0-313-31516-9.
- ISBN 1-903656-19-2.
- ISBN 0-8050-7932-7.
- ISBN 0-520-00574-0.
- Hooman, Peimani (2009). Conflict and Security in Central Asia and the Caucasus.
- McDowall, David (2004). A Modern History of the Kurds. I.B. Tauris.