Central Asian art

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Central Asian art
Greco-Bactrian statuette from Ai-Khanoum (2nd century BC), and funerary statue from Kosh-Agach
(8th–10th century AD).
History of art
Periods and movements
Regions
Art of the Middle East

Art of Central Asia

Art of East Asia

Art of South Asia

Art of Southeast Asia

Art of Europe

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Art of Oceania
Religions
Techniques
Types

Central Asian art is

Persianate
culture, are all part of this complicated history.

From the late second millennium BC until very recently, the grasslands of Central Asia – stretching from the Caspian Sea to central China and from southern Russia to northern India – have been home to migrating herders who practised mixed economies on the margins of sedentary societies. The prehistoric 'animal style' art of these pastoral nomads not only demonstrates their zoomorphic mythologies and shamanic traditions but also their fluidity in incorporating the symbols of sedentary society into their own artworks.

Central Asia has always been a crossroads of cultural exchange, the hub of the so-called

Indus Valley, Mesopotamia and Egypt.[5]

The arts of recent centuries are mainly influenced by Islamic art, but the varied earlier cultures were influenced by the art of China, Persia and Greece, as well as the Animal style that developed among the nomadic peoples of the steppes.[4] [6]

Upper Paleolithic

One of the Venus figurines of Mal'ta, circa 21,000 BCE
See also: Venus figurines of Mal'ta, Art of the Upper Paleolithic, and Mal'ta–Buret' culture

The first modern human occupation in the difficult climates of North and Central Asia is dated to circa 40,000 ago, with the early Yana culture of northern Siberia dated to circa 31,000 BCE. By around 21,000 BCE, two main cultures developed: the Mal'ta culture and slightly later the Afontova Gora-Oshurkovo culture.[7]

The

Southern Siberia, and located at the northeastern periphery of Central Asia, created some of the first works of art in the Upper Paleolithic period, with objects such as the Venus figurines of Mal'ta. These figures consist most often of mammoth ivory. The figures are about 23,000 years old and stem from the Gravettian. Most of these statuettes show stylized clothes. Quite often the face is depicted.[8] The tradition of Upper Paleolithic portable statuettes being almost exclusively European, it has been suggested that Mal'ta had some kind of cultural and cultic connection with Europe during that time period, but this remains unsettled.[7][9]

Bronze Age

The

Margu, the capital of which was Merv
, in today's Turkmenistan.

Fertility goddesses, named "Bactrian princesses", made from limestone, chlorite and clay reflect agrarian Bronze Age society, while the extensive corpus of metal objects point to a sophisticated tradition of metalworking.[11] Wearing large stylised dresses, as well as headdresses that merge with the hair, "Bactrian princesses" embody the ranking goddess, character of the central Asian mythology that plays a regulatory role, pacifying the untamed forces.[citation needed]

  • Female figurine of the "Bactrian princess" type; between 3rd millennium and 2nd millennium BC; chlorite mineral group (dress and headdresses) and limestone (face and neck); height: 17.3 cm, width: 16.1 cm; Louvre
    Female figurine of the "Bactrian princess" type; between 3rd millennium and 2nd millennium BC; chlorite mineral group (dress and headdresses) and limestone (face and neck); height: 17.3 cm, width: 16.1 cm; Louvre
  • Ancient bowl with animals, Bactria, 3rd–2nd millennium BC.
    Ancient bowl with animals, Bactria, 3rd–2nd millennium BC.
  • Axe with eagle-headed demon & animals; late 3rd millennium-early 2nd millennium BC; gilt silver; length: 15 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
    Axe with eagle-headed demon & animals; late 3rd millennium-early 2nd millennium BC;
    gilt silver; length: 15 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    (New York City)
  • Camel figurine; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; copper alloy; 8.89 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Camel figurine; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; copper alloy; 8.89 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Monstrous male figure; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; chlorite, calcite, gold and iron; height: 10.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Monstrous male figure; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; chlorite, calcite, gold and iron; height: 10.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Handled weight; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; chlorite; 25.08 x 19.69 x 4.45 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (USA)
    Handled weight; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; chlorite; 25.08 x 19.69 x 4.45 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (USA)
  • Female figurine of the "Bactrian princess" type; 2500–1500; chlorite (dress and headdresses) and limestone (head, hands and a leg); height: 13.33 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (USA)
    Female figurine of the "Bactrian princess" type; 2500–1500; chlorite (dress and headdresses) and limestone (head, hands and a leg); height: 13.33 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (USA)
  • Beaker with birds on the rim; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; electrum; height: 12 cm, width: 13.3 cm, depth: 4.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Beaker with birds on the rim; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; electrum; height: 12 cm, width: 13.3 cm, depth: 4.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Scythian cultures

Pazyrik culture (6th–3rd century BC)

Horseman, Pazyryk felt artifact, c. 300 BC.
See also: Pazyryk culture and Pazyryk burials

The

Siberian Ice Princess, indicating a flourishing culture at this location that benefited from the many trade routes and caravans of merchants passing through the area.[14] The Pazyryk are considered to have had a war-like life.[15]

Other kurgan cemeteries associated with the culture include those of Bashadar, Tuekta, Ulandryk, Polosmak and Berel. There are so far no known sites of settlements associated with the burials, suggesting a purely nomadic lifestyle.

The remarkable textiles recovered from the Pazyryk burials include the oldest woollen knotted-pile carpet known, the oldest embroidered Chinese silk, and two pieces of woven Persian fabric (State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg). Red and ochre predominate in the carpet, the main design of which is of riders, stags, and griffins. Many of the Pazyryk felt hangings, saddlecloths, and cushions were covered with elaborate designs executed in appliqué feltwork, dyed furs, and embroidery. Of exceptional interest are those with animal and human figural compositions, the most notable of which are the repeat design of an investiture scene on a felt hanging and that of a semi-human, semi-bird creature on another (both in the State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg). Clothing, whether of felt, leather, or fur, was also lavishly ornamented.

Horse reins either had animal designs cut out on them or were studded with wooden ones covered in gold foil. Their tail sheaths were ornamented, as were their headpieces and breast pieces. Some horses were provided with leather or felt masks made to resemble animals, with stag antlers or rams' horns often incorporated in them. Many of the trappings took the form of iron, bronze, and gilt wood animal motifs either applied or suspended from them; and bits had animal-shaped terminal ornaments. Altai-Sayan animals frequently display muscles delineated with dot and comma markings, a formal convention that may have derived from appliqué needlework. Such markings are sometimes included in

Central Asian
tribesmen and are featured in their arts.

Certain geometric designs and

herbivores are exceedingly numerous in Pazyryk work; the Pazyryk beasts are locked in such bitter fights that the victim's hindquarters become inverted.[16]

  • Pazyryk carpet
    Pazyryk carpet
  • Pazyryk saddlecloth.
    Pazyryk saddlecloth.
  • Decorated tapestry with seated goddess Tabiti and rider, Pazyryk Kurgan 5, Altai, Southern Russia c. 241 BC.[17]
    Decorated tapestry with seated goddess Tabiti and rider, Pazyryk Kurgan 5, Altai, Southern Russia c. 241 BC.[17]

Art of the steppes

Tribes of Europoid type appear to have been active in Mongolia and Southern Siberia from ancient times. They were in contact with China and were often described for their foreign features.[18]

  • Bronze plaque of a man of the Ordos Plateau, later held by the Xiongnu. 3–1st century BC, British Museum. Otto Maenchen-Helfen notes that the statuette displays Caucasoid features.[19]
    Bronze plaque of a man of the
    Caucasoid features.[19]
  • Belt buckle with Europoid types, Mongolia or southern Siberia, 2nd–1st century BC.[20][21]
    Belt buckle with Europoid types, Mongolia or southern Siberia, 2nd–1st century BC.[20][21]
  • Belt Buckle, Mongolia or southern Siberia, 2nd–1st century BC.[20]
    Belt Buckle, Mongolia or southern Siberia, 2nd–1st century BC.[20]
  • The Boar hunter, with characteristic Xiongnu horse trappings, Southern Siberia, 280–180 BC. Hermitage Museum.[22][23][24]
    The
    horse trappings, Southern Siberia, 280–180 BC. Hermitage Museum.[22][23][24]

Sakas

A cataphract-style parade armour of a Saka royal, also known as "The Golden Warrior", from the Issyk kurgan, a historical burial site near ex-capital city of Almaty, Kazakhstan. c. 400–200 BC.[25]
See also:
Scythian art

The art of the

Scythian art.[26] [27]In 2001, the discovery of an undisturbed royal Scythian burial-barrow illustrated Scythian animal-style gold that lacks the direct influence of Greek styles. Forty-four pounds of gold weighed down the royal couple in this burial, discovered near Kyzyl, capital of the Siberian republic of Tuva
.

Ancient influences from Central Asia became identifiable in China following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western and northwestern border territories from the 8th century BC. The Chinese adopted the Scythian-style animal art of the

steatite.[28][page needed
]

Following their expulsion by the

Caucasoid horsemen in Central Asian clothing.[29]

Saka influences have been identified as far as Korea and Japan. Various Korean artifacts, such as the royal crowns of the kingdom of

Kofun era Japan.[31]

  • "Kings with dragons", Tillia Tepe
    "Kings with dragons",
    Tillia Tepe
  • Battle scenes on the Orlat plaques. 1st century AD.
    Battle scenes on the Orlat plaques. 1st century AD.
  • Crown from Tomb VI of Tillya Tepe (female owner)
    Crown from Tomb VI of Tillya Tepe (female owner)

Achaemenid period

Persian soldiers (left) fighting against Scythians. Cylinder seal impression.[32]

sixth century BC, forming the twelfth satrapy of Persia.[33][34]

Under Persian rule, many Greeks were deported to Bactria, so that their communities and language became common in the area. During the reign of

Darius I, the inhabitants of the Greek city of Barca, in Cyrenaica, were deported to Bactria for refusing to surrender assassins.[35] In addition, Xerxes also settled the "Branchidae" in Bactria; they were the descendants of Greek priests who had once lived near Didyma (western Asia Minor) and betrayed the temple to him.[36] Herodotus also records a Persian commander threatening to enslave daughters of the revolting Ionians and send them to Bactria.[37] Persia subsequently conscripted Greek men from these settlements in Bactria into their military, as did Alexander later.[38]

Hellenistic and Greco-Bactrian art (265–145 BC)

The

Greco-Bactrians ruled the southern part of Central Asia from the 3rd to the 2nd century BC, with their capital at Ai-Khanoum.[39][40][41]

The main known remains from this period are the ruins and artifacts of their city of

Kharoshthi.[42] Apart from Ai-Khanoum, Indo-Greek ruins have been positively identified in few cities such as Barikot or Taxila, with generally much fewer known artistic remains.[40][43]

Architecture in Bactria

Corinthian capital, found at Ai-Khanoum in the citadel by the troops of Commander Massoud, 2nd century BC.

Numerous artefacts and structures were found, particularly in Ai-Khanoum, pointing to a high Hellenistic culture, combined with Eastern influences, starting from the 280–250 BC period.

Eucratides around 145 BC.[46]

Archaeological missions unearthed various structures, some of them perfectly Hellenistic, some other integrating elements of

Persian architecture, including a citadel, a Classical theater, a huge palace in Greco-Bactrian architecture, somehow reminiscent of formal Persian palatial architecture, a gymnasium (100 × 100m), one of the largest of Antiquity, various temples, a mosaic representing the Macedonian sun, acanthus leaves and various animals (crabs, dolphins etc...), numerous remains of Classical Corinthian columns.[46]
Many artifacts are dated to the 2nd century BC, which corresponds to the early Indo-Greek period.

  • Ai- Khanoum mosaic (central detail in color).
    Ai- Khanoum mosaic (central detail in color).
  • Architectural antefixae with Hellenistic "Flame palmette" design, Ai-Khanoum.
    Architectural antefixae with Hellenistic "Flame palmette" design, Ai-Khanoum.
  • Sun dial within two sculpted lion feet.
    Sun dial within two sculpted lion feet.
  • Winged antefix, a type only known from Ai-Khanoum.
    Winged antefix, a type only known from Ai-Khanoum.

Sculpture

Stucco face found in the administrative palace. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC

Various sculptural fragments were also found at Ai-Khanoum, in a rather conventional, classical style, rather impervious to the Hellenizing innovations occurring at the same time in the Mediterranean world. Of special notice, a huge foot fragment in excellent Hellenistic style was recovered, which is estimated to have belonged to a 5–6 meter tall statue (which had to be seated to fit within the height of the columns supporting the Temple). Since the sandal of the foot fragment bears the symbolic depiction of Zeus' thunderbolt, the statue is thought to have been a smaller version of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia.[47][48]

Due to the lack of proper stones for sculptural work in the area of Ai-Khanoum, unbaked clay and stucco modeled on a wooden frame were often used, a technique which would become widespread in Central Asia and the East, especially in Buddhist art. In some cases, only the hands and feet would be made in marble.

In India, only a few Hellenistic sculptural remains have been found, mainly small items in the excavations of Sirkap.

  • Sculpture of an old man. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
    Sculpture of an old man. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
  • Close-up of the same statue.
    Close-up of the same statue.
  • Frieze of a naked man wearing a chlamys. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
    Frieze of a naked man wearing a chlamys. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
  • Hellenistic gargoyle. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
    Hellenistic gargoyle. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.

Artefacts

Sun God
. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.

A variety of artefacts of Hellenistic style, often with Persian influence, were also excavated at Ai-Khanoum, such as a round medallion plate describing the goddess

Kabul Museum after several years in Switzerland by Paul Bucherer-Dietschi, Director of the Swiss Afghanistan Institute.[49]

  • Bronze Herakles statuette. Ai-Khanoum. 2nd century BC.
    Bronze Herakles statuette. Ai-Khanoum. 2nd century BC.
  • Bracelet with horned female busts. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
    Bracelet with horned female busts. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
  • Stone recipients from Ai-Khanoum. 3rd-2nd century BC.
    Stone recipients from Ai-Khanoum. 3rd-2nd century BC.
  • Imprint from a mold found in Ai-Khanoum. 3rd-2nd century BC.
    Imprint from a mold found in Ai-Khanoum. 3rd-2nd century BC.

Yuezhi and Kushan art

Main article: Kushan art

Some traces remain of the presence of the Kushans in the areas of

Takht-I-Sangin, Surkh Kotal (a monumental temple), and in the palace of Khalchayan. Various sculptures and friezes are known, representing horse-riding archers, and, significantly, men with artificially deformed skulls, such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan (a practice well attested in nomadic Central Asia).[50]

Khalchayan (1st century BC)

Main article: Khalchayan
Kushan art at Khalchayan
(1st century BC)
Head of a Yuezhi prince (Khalchayan palace, Uzbekistan).[51][52]
Head of a Saka warrior, as a defeated enemy of the Yuezhi, Khalchayan.[53][54][55]

The art of

wiskers, displaying expressive and sometimes grotesque features.[57]

According to Benjamin Rowland, the styles and ethnic type visible in Kalchayan already anticipate the characteristics of the later

Kushans.[56]

Bactria (1st–3rd century AD)

The Kushans apparently favoured royal portraiture, as can be seen in their coins and their dynastic sculptures.

Kanishka I has been found in Mathura in northern India, which is characterized by its frontality and martial stance, as he holds firmly his sword and a mace.[58] His heavy coat and riding boots are typically nomadic Central Asian, and are way too heavy for the warm climate of India.[58] His coat is decorated by hundreds of pearls, which probably symbolize his wealth.[58] His grandiose regnal title is inscribed in the Brahmi script: "The Great King, King of Kings, Son of God, Kanishka".[59][58]

As the Kushans progressively adapted to life in India, their dress progressively became lighter, and representation less frontal and more natural, although they retained characteristic elements of their nomadic dress, such as the trousers and boots, the heavy tunics, and heavy belts.

  • Early Kushan ruler Heraios (1–30 AD), from his coinage.
    Early Kushan ruler Heraios (1–30 AD), from his coinage.
  • Figures in the embroidered carpets of the Noin-Ula burial site, made in Bactria and proposed to represent Yuezhis (1st century BC – 1st century AD).[60][61][62]
    Figures in the embroidered carpets of the Noin-Ula burial site, made in Bactria and proposed to represent Yuezhis (1st century BC – 1st century AD).[60][61][62]
  • Kushan worshiper with deity Zeus/ Serapis/ Ohrmazd, Bactria, 3rd century AD.[63]
    Kushan worshiper with deity
    Ohrmazd, Bactria, 3rd century AD.[63]
  • Kushan men in caftan and boots, at Fayaz Tepe
    Kushan men in caftan and boots, at Fayaz Tepe
  • Painting of a Kushan ruler (probably Huvishka, seated) and attendants, Bactria, 74–258 AD.[64]
    Painting of a Kushan ruler (probably Huvishka, seated) and attendants, Bactria, 74–258 AD.[64]
  • Buddhist mural in Kara Tepe, 2nd–4th century AD.
    Buddhist mural in Kara Tepe, 2nd–4th century AD.
  • Buddhist pillar capital from Surkh Kotal, with central Buddha figure.
    Buddhist pillar capital from Surkh Kotal, with central Buddha figure.

Kushano-Sasanian art (3rd–4th century AD)

The

Sassanid art
was influential on Kushan art, and this influence remained active for several centuries in northwest South Asia.

Huns

The

nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. The nomadic nature of Hun society means that they have left very little in the archaeological record.[72] Archaeological finds have produced a large number of cauldrons that have since the work of Paul Reinecke in 1896 been identified as having been produced by the Huns.[73] Although typically described as "bronze cauldrons", the cauldrons are often made of copper, which is generally of poor quality.[74] Maenchen-Helfen lists 19 known finds of Hunnish cauldrons from all over Central and Eastern Europe and Western Siberia.[75] They come in various shapes, and are sometimes found together with vessels of various other origins.[76]

Both ancient sources and archaeological finds from graves confirm that the Huns wore elaborately decorated golden or gold-plated diadems.[77] Maenchen-Helfen lists a total of six known Hunnish diadems.[78] Hunnic women seem to have worn necklaces and bracelets of mostly imported beads of various materials as well.[79] The later common early medieval practice of decorating jewelry and weapons with gemstones appears to have originated with the Huns.[80] They are also known to have made small mirrors of an originally Chinese type, which often appear to have been intentionally broken when placed into a grave.[81]

Archaeological finds indicate that the Huns wore gold plaques as ornaments on their clothing, as well as imported glass beads.[82] Ammianus reports that they wore clothes made of linen or the furs of marmots and leggings of goatskin.[83]

  • A Hunnish cauldron
    A Hunnish cauldron
  • Detail of Hunnish gold and garnet bracelet, 5th century, Walters Art Museum
    Detail of Hunnish gold and garnet bracelet, 5th century, Walters Art Museum
  • A Hunnish oval openwork fibula set with a carnelian and decorated with a geometric pattern of gold wire, 4th century, Walters Art Museum
    A Hunnish oval openwork fibula set with a carnelian and decorated with a geometric pattern of gold wire, 4th century, Walters Art Museum

Kidarites

Altaic rather than Iranian lineage.[84][85]

The

Byzantine historian Priscus called them Kidarites Huns, or "Huns who are Kidarites".[88][89] The Huna/ Xionite tribes are often linked, albeit controversially, to the Huns who invaded Eastern Europe during a similar period. They are entirely different from the Hephthalites, who replaced them about a century later.[89]

  • Kidarite tamga symbol () appears to the right of the standing king. Balkh mint.
    Kidarite tamga symbol () appears to the right of the standing king. Balkh mint.
  • Silver bowl, showing an Alchon horseman
    Silver bowl, showing an
    Alchon
    horseman
  • Two Kidarite princes on the Hephthalite bowl
    Two Kidarite princes on the
    Hephthalite bowl

Hephthalite art (4th–6th century AD)

Murals from Dilberjin Tepe, thought to represent early Hephthalites.[90][91][92][93] The ruler wears a radiate crown which is comparable to the crown of the king on the "Yabghu of the Hephthalites" seal.[94]

The Hephthalites (Bactrian: ηβοδαλο, romanized: Ebodalo),[95] sometimes called the "White Huns",[96][97] were a people who lived in Central Asia during the 5th to 8th centuries. They existed as an Empire, the "Imperial Hephthalites", and were militarily important from 450 AD, when they defeated the Kidarites, to 560 AD, date of their defeat to combined First Turkic Khaganate and Sasanian Empire forces.[98][99]

The Hepthalites appears in several mural paintings in the area of

Tukharistan".[100][104]

The paintings related to the Hephthalites have often been grouped under the appellation of "Tokharistan school of art",

Balalyk tepe, in the depiction of clothes, and especially in the treatment of the faces.[107]

This "Hephthalite period" in art, with the caftans with a triangular collar folded on the right, the particular cropped hairstyle, the crowns with crescents, have been found in many of the areas historically occupied and ruled by the Hephthalites, in Sogdia, Bamiyan (modern Afghanistan), or in Kucha in the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China). This points to a "political and cultural unification of Central Asia" with similar artistic styles and iconography, under the rule of the Hephthalites.[108]

Buddhist art of Bamiyan

carbon-dated to 544–595 AD and 591–644 AD respectively.[114][115]

The Buddhist art of Bamiyan covers a period from the early centuries of the Common Era, culminating with the building of the

Gautama Buddha carved into the side of a cliff in the Bamyan valley of central Afghanistan, 130 kilometres (81 mi) northwest of Kabul at an elevation of 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). Carbon dating of the structural components of the Buddhas has determined that the smaller 38 m (125 ft) "Eastern Buddha" was built around 570 AD, and the larger 55 m (180 ft) "Western Buddha" was built around 618 AD.[110][115]

The statues represented a later evolution of the classic blended style of

Gandhara art.[117] The statues consisted of the male Salsal ("light shines through the universe") and the (smaller) female Shamama ("Queen Mother"), as they were called by the locals.[118] The main bodies were hewn directly from the sandstone cliffs, but details were modeled in mud mixed with straw, coated with stucco. This coating, practically all of which wore away long ago, was painted to enhance the expressions of the faces, hands, and folds of the robes; the larger one was painted carmine red and the smaller one was painted multiple colors.[119]
The lower parts of the statues' arms were constructed from the same mud-straw mix supported on wooden armatures. It is believed that the upper parts of their faces were made from great wooden masks or casts. The rows of holes that can be seen in photographs held wooden pegs that stabilized the outer stucco.

The Buddhas are surrounded by numerous caves and surfaces decorated with paintings.[120] It is thought that the period of florescence was from the 6th to 8th century AD, until the onset of Islamic invasions.[120] These works of art are considered as an artistic synthesis of Buddhist art and Gupta art from India, with influences from the Sasanian Empire and the Byzantine Empire, as well as the country of Tokharistan.[120]

  • Buddha, Cave 404 in Bamiyan.
    Buddha, Cave 404 in Bamiyan.
  • Sun-God Surya on his chariot
    Sun-God Surya on his chariot
  • Probable King of Bamiyan, in Sasanian style, in the niche of the 38 meters Buddha, next to the Sun God, Bamiyan.[102][121][122]
    Probable King of Bamiyan, in
    Sasanian style, in the niche of the 38 meters Buddha, next to the Sun God, Bamiyan.[102][121][122]
  • Western Buddha, Niche, ceiling, east section E1 and E2.[123]
    Western Buddha, Niche, ceiling, east section E1 and E2.[123]

Tarim Basin

See also: Serindian art and Kizil Caves
The Buddhist Cave of the Ring-Bearing Doves (Cave 123) at the Kizil Caves near Kucha, built c. 430–530 AD

From the 3rd century AD, the Tarim Basin became a centre for the development of Buddhist art, and a major relay for the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism. Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese by Kuchean monks, the most famous of whom was Kumārajīva (344–412/5).[124][125]

Indian and Central Asian influences

Numerous Buddhist caves cover the northern side of the Tarim Basin, such as the Kizil Caves consisting in over 236 such temples. Their murals date from the 3rd to the 8th century.[126] The caves of Kizil are the earlier of their type in China, and their model was later adopted in the construction of Buddhist caves further east.[127] Other famous sites nearby are the Kizilgaha caves, the Kumtura Caves, Subashi Temple or the Simsim caves.[128][129]

In the Kizil Caves appear portraits of Royal families, composed of the King, Queen and young Prince. They are accompanied by monks, and men in caftan.[130]

  • The mural, "Dance of princess Chandraprabha", with frames probably derived from Roman art of the 1st century AD.[131] Treasure Cave C (Cave 83). MIK III 8443.
    The mural, "Dance of princess Chandraprabha", with frames probably derived from Roman art of the 1st century AD.[131] Treasure Cave C (Cave 83). MIK III 8443.
  • Painting of a cowherd listening to a sermon of the Buddha, from the right wall of the main hall. Cave of the Statues. 14C date: 406-425 AD.[132]
    Painting of a cowherd listening to a sermon of the Buddha, from the right wall of the main hall. Cave of the Statues.
    14C date: 406-425 AD.[132]
  • Maitreya in the lunette over the entrance of Maya Cave, 224, Kizil Caves. Dahlem Museum
    Dahlem Museum

Interaction with Chinese art

The influence of

Dunhuang Caves
.

  • Praṇidhi scene, temple 9 (Cave 20), including Sogdian merchants. Bezeklik Caves.[133]
    Praṇidhi scene, temple 9 (Cave 20), including Sogdian merchants. Bezeklik Caves.[133]
  • Details from Praṇidhi scene No. 5. Central Asian and Asian Buddhist monks.[133]
    Details from Praṇidhi scene No. 5. Central Asian and Asian Buddhist monks.[133]
  • Bodhisattva leading a lady donor towards the Pure Lands. Painting on silk (Library Cave), Late Tang. Mogao Caves
    Bodhisattva leading a lady donor towards the Pure Lands. Painting on silk (Library Cave), Late Tang. Mogao Caves
  • Figure of Maitreya Buddha in cave 275 from Northern Liang (397–439), one of the earliest caves. The crossed ankle figure with a three-disk crown shows influence from Kushan art. Mogao Caves
    Figure of
    Maitreya Buddha in cave 275 from Northern Liang (397–439), one of the earliest caves. The crossed ankle figure with a three-disk crown shows influence from Kushan art. Mogao Caves

Sogdian art

Main article: Sogdian art

The

gilded bronze plaques on a Buddhist temple show a pairing of a male and female deity with outstretched hands holding a miniature camel, a common non-Buddhist image similarly found in the paintings of Samarkand and Panjakent.[136]

Central Asian art in ancient China

Kushano-Sasanian plate with hunting scene, from the Northern Wei tomb of Feng Hetu (封和突, a Xianbei military official, 438–501) in Xiaozhan village, Datong. Shanxi Museum.[146][147]

From the 4th to the 6th centuries AD, the Northern dynasties (389–589 AD) of China, ruled by the nomadic Xianbei, engaged in trade with Central Asia, often through the intermediary of Sogdian traders. Northern Wei art came under influence of Indian and Central Asian traditions through the mean of these trade routes. This included the influence of Buddhism, which flourished under the Northern dynasties.[148] Numerous Central Asian works of art, especially decorated silverware and jewelry, have been found in the tombs of the Northern Wei, the Northern Qi or the Northern Zhou.[149][150][151]

Turkic art

The

Western Turks
, circa 560 to 742 AD. Several later Turkic-speaking empires would later develop, founded by unrelated tribes.

Islamic Golden Age in Central Asia

class=notpageimage|
Main Asian polities c. 800

The

Arabs, of Transoxiana, the land between the Oxus (Amu Darya) and Jaxartes (Syr Darya) rivers, a part of Central Asia that today includes all or parts of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. This started a period of prosperity, from the 8th to the 14th century, known as the Islamic Golden Age
, which also affected the arts of Central Asia.

Arab period (7–8th centuries)

Islamic art diffused in Central Asia with the rule of

Arabs. Buildings following Islamic standard were built throughout the land, such as the Abbasid mosque of Afrasiab in Samarkand circa 750–825 CE.[163]

  • Decorated niche from the Abbasid mosque of Afrasiab, Samarkand, 750-825 CE.[163]
    Decorated niche from the Abbasid mosque of Afrasiab, Samarkand, 750-825 CE.[163]
  • Folio sheet from a Qur'an, found in the sanctuary of Katta Langar, south of Samarkand, first half of the 8th century.
    Folio sheet from a Qur'an, found in the sanctuary of Katta Langar, south of Samarkand, first half of the 8th century.
  • Coran from Katta Langar, decorative band (detail)
    Coran from Katta Langar, decorative band (detail)

Iranian Intermezzo (9–10th centuries)

See also: Iranian Intermezzo

Sallarids.[164]

Samanids (819–999)

Artistic florescence occurred especially during the period of the Samanid Empire (819–999). The empire was centred in Khorasan and Transoxiana; at its greatest extent encompassing modern-day Afghanistan, large parts of Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, parts of Kazakhstan and Pakistan.

  • The Samanid Mausoleum, the burial site of Ismail Samani, in Bukhara, 10th century.
    The Samanid Mausoleum, the burial site of Ismail Samani, in Bukhara, 10th century.
  • Great decorated panel from a Samanid residential complex, 9th-10th century, Afrasiab, Samarkand.[165]
    Great decorated panel from a Samanid residential complex, 9th-10th century, Afrasiab, Samarkand.[165]
  • "Simurgh platter", from Iran, Samanids dynasty. 9th-10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin
    "Simurgh platter", from Iran, Samanids dynasty. 9th-10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin
  • Example of figural earthenware ceramics from Samanid period. From Nishapur, Iran, 10th century CE.
    Example of figural earthenware ceramics from Samanid period. From Nishapur, Iran, 10th century CE.

Buyids (932–1062)

The

Būyids, also an Iranian dynasty, became great patrons of art and architecture, as a way to enhance their prestige and to compensate for their humble origins. Through art, they endeavoured to present themselves as the heirs to the pre-Islamic tradition of kingship in Iran.[166]

  • Medallion of Buyid amir 'Adud al-Dawla (r.936–983).
    Medallion of Buyid amir 'Adud al-Dawla (r.936–983).
  • Gold ewer of the Buyid Period, mentioning Buyid ruler Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiyar ibn Mu'izz al-Dawla, 966-977 CE, Iran.[167]
    Gold ewer of the Buyid Period, mentioning Buyid ruler
    Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiyar ibn Mu'izz al-Dawla, 966-977 CE, Iran.[167]
  • Buyid silk in pseudo-Sasanian style.
    Buyid silk in pseudo-Sasanian style.
  • Rosewater bottle, Buyid art, early 12th century, Iran. Freer Gallery of Art.[168]
    Rosewater bottle, Buyid art, early 12th century, Iran. Freer Gallery of Art.[168]

Turkic dynasties (9–13th centuries)

See also: Turco-Persian tradition

With the rise of Turkic dynasties in Central Asia, Persian art started to evolve to adapt to the tastes of the new Turkic ruling class: in paintings, the composition of narrative scenes remains unchanged, but nomadic clothing, physical traits and power symbols (such as the bow and arrow) are now depicted. From the mid-12th century, beauty standards too evolve, with round and serene faces with almond-shaped eyes becoming uniquitous in artistic representations.[169]

Kara-Khanid Khanate (840-1212)

Muḥammad b. Tekish took over Samarkand.[172]

A palatial structure dating to the

Khwarezmia was invaded by the early Mongol Empire and its ruler Genghis Khan destroyed the once vibrant cities of Bukhara and Samarkand.[173] However, in 1370, Samarkand saw a revival as the capital of the Timurid Empire.[174]

  • Kara-Khanid bands of inscription with running animals, Afrasiab, circa 1200 CE.[175]
    Kara-Khanid bands of inscription with running animals, Afrasiab, circa 1200 CE.[175]
  • Bowl with bird. Afrasiab (Samarkand), 11th century.[176]
    Bowl with bird. Afrasiab (Samarkand), 11th century.[176]
  • Bowl with bird. Afrasiab (Samarkand), 11th century.[177]
    Bowl with bird. Afrasiab (Samarkand), 11th century.[177]

Ghaznavids (977–1186)

The

Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin,[179][a][180] at their greatest extent ruling large parts of Iran, Afghanistan, much of Transoxiana and the northwest Indian subcontinent from 977 to 1186.[181]

  • Ghaznavid portrait of a characteristically Turkic individual, Palace of Lashkari Bazar.[182]
    Ghaznavid portrait of a characteristically Turkic individual, Palace of Lashkari Bazar.[182]
  • Ghaznavid sculpted architecture, marble, Ghazni, 12th century AD
    Ghaznavid sculpted architecture, marble, Ghazni, 12th century AD
  • Vessel with bull's head spout, Ghaznavid dynasty, late 11th to early 12th century
    Vessel with bull's head spout, Ghaznavid dynasty, late 11th to early 12th century
  • Ghaznavid sculpted architecture, marble, Ghazni, 12–13th century AD
    Ghaznavid sculpted architecture, marble, Ghazni, 12–13th century AD

Seljuks (1037–1194)

The Seljuk Empire (1037–1194 AD) was a high medieval Turko-Persian Sunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qiniq branch of Oghuz Turks. At its greatest extent, the Seljuk Empire controlled a vast area stretching from western Anatolia and the Levant to the Hindu Kush in the east, and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf in the south.

  • Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar in Merv, Turkmenistan.
    Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar in Merv, Turkmenistan.
  • Seljuk-era art: Ghurid Ewer from Herat, Afghanistan, dated 1180–1210 AD. Brass worked in repousse and inlaid with silver and bitumen. British Museum.
    Seljuk-era art:
    Ewer from Herat, Afghanistan, dated 1180–1210 AD. Brass worked in repousse and inlaid with silver and bitumen. British Museum
    .
  • Princely figure related to the Seljuq sultan or one of his local vassals or successors, Seljuk period, Iran, late 12th–13th century.[183][184]
    Princely figure related to the Seljuq sultan or one of his local vassals or successors, Seljuk period, Iran, late 12th–13th century.[183][184]
  • Mina'i bowl signed by Abu Zayd al-Kashani, dated 1187 CE, Iran.[185]
    Abu Zayd al-Kashani, dated 1187 CE, Iran.[185]

Khwarazmians (1077–1231)

Luster star-shaped tile, showing a sultan surrounded by members of the court, dated 1211–12 CE. Kashan, Iran.[186]

The

Mongol invasion of Persia in 1219, at a time when the Khwarazmian Empire ruled the area, initially under the suzerainty of the Seljuk Empire, and independently from 1190.[187] Some of the "most iconic" productions of stonepaste vessels can be attributed to the Khwarazmian rulers, after the end of Seljuk domination (the Seljuk Empire itself ended in 1194).[188] In general, it is considered that Mina'i ware was manufactured from the late 12th century and the early 13th century, and dated Mina’i wares range from 1186 to 1224.[189]

  • Horsemen, Mina'i ware, early 13th century, Iran.[190]
    Horsemen, Mina'i ware, early 13th century, Iran.[190]
  • Mina'i Bowl with horserider, early 13th century, Iran.[191]
    Mina'i Bowl with horserider, early 13th century, Iran.[191]
  • Mina'i Lobed bowl, early 13th century, Iran.[192]
    Mina'i Lobed bowl, early 13th century, Iran.[192]

Mongol invasion

frontispiece, 1341, probably Isfahan.[193]

The Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded Central Asia in the early 13th century. The unified Mongol Empire was succeeded by the Chagatai Khanate,[194] a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate.[195][196] that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan, second son of Genghis Khan and his descendants and successors. At its height in the late 13th century, the khanate extended from the Amu Darya south of the Aral Sea to the Altai Mountains in the border of modern-day Mongolia and China, roughly corresponding to the defunct Qara Khitai Empire.[197] Initially the rulers of the Chagatai Khanate recognized the supremacy of the Great Khan,[198] but by the reign of Kublai Khan, Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq no longer obeyed the emperor's orders.

Timurid Renaissance

Main articles: Timurid art and Timurid Renaissance

During the mid-14th century, the Chagatais lost

Persian culture as their own.[200]

Khanate of Bukhara and Khanate of Khiva

The

Genghisid descendants
to rule Bukhara.

Russian Turkestan (1867–1917)

Kazakh in a fur hat (1867–1868), Vasily Vereshchagin (1842–1904).

Central Asia fell largely under the control of Russia in the 19th century, following the

governor-generalship. It comprised the oasis region to the south of the Kazakh Steppe, but not the protectorates of the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva
. As a consequence of Russian colonization, European fine arts – painting, sculpture and graphics – have developed in Central Asia.

  • The Emir of Bukhara and the notables of the city watch how the heads of Russian soldiers are impaled on poles. Samarkand
    The Emir of Bukhara and the notables of the city watch how the heads of Russian soldiers are impaled on poles. Samarkand
  • Russian troops taking Samarkand in 1868
    Russian troops taking Samarkand in 1868
  • They Attack Unaware
    They Attack Unaware

Soviet Central Asia (1918–1991)

Soviet Central Asia refers to the section of Central Asia formerly controlled by the Soviet Union, as well as the time period of Soviet administration (1918–1991). Central Asian SSRs declared independence in 1991. In terms of area, it is nearly synonymous with Russian Turkestan, the name for the region during the Russian Empire. The first years of the Soviet regime saw the appearance of modernism, which took inspiration from the Russian avant-garde movement. Until the 1980s, Central Asian arts had developed along with general tendencies of Soviet arts.

  • Urging peasants to speed up cotton production – Russian and Uzbek, Tashkent, 1920s
    Urging peasants to speed up cotton production – Russian and Uzbek, Tashkent, 1920s
  • "Female Muslims- The tsar, beys and khans took your rights away" – Azeri, Baku, 1921 (Mardjani).
    "Female Muslims- The tsar, beys and khans took your rights away" – Azeri, Baku, 1921 (Mardjani).
  • Poster of 3 different men with the word "friendship" underneath. Central Asia
    Poster of 3 different men with the word "friendship" underneath. Central Asia
  • Emblem of the Turkmen SSR.
    Emblem of the
    Turkmen SSR
    .

Contemporary period

Uzbekistan, Bukhara, Spices and silk festival

In the 90s, arts of the region underwent some significant changes. Institutionally speaking, some fields of arts were regulated by the birth of the art market, some stayed as representatives of official views, while many were sponsored by international organizations. The years of 1990–2000 were times for the establishment of contemporary arts. In the region, many important international exhibitions are taking place, Central Asian art is represented in European and American museums, and the Central Asian Pavilion at the Venice Biennale has been organized since 2005.

See also

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  143. ^ "Hermitage Museum".
  144. ^ Gorelik, Michael (1979). "Oriental Armour of the Near and Middle East from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Centuries as Shown in Works of Art", by Michael Gorelik, in: Islamic Arms and Armour, ed. Robert Elgood, London 1979. Robert Elgood.
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  146. ^ Carter, M.L. "Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. A gilt silver plate depicting a princely boar hunt, excavated from a tomb near Datong dated to 504 CE, is close to early Sasanian royal hunting plates in style and technical aspects, but diverges enough to suggest a Bactrian origin dating from the era of the Kushano-Sasanian rule (ca. 275–350 CE)
  147. JSTOR 24048350
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  148. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2023-03-26. Retrieved 2022-06-02.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
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  154. ^ Lingley, Kate A. (2014). "SILK ROAD DRESS IN A CHINESE TOMB: XU XIANXIU AND SIXTH-CENTURY COSMOPOLITANISM" (PDF). The Silk Road. 12: 2.
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  157. ^ Narantsatsral, D. "THE SILK ROAD CULTURE AND ANCIENT TURKISH WALL PAINTED TOMB" (PDF). The Journal of International Civilization Studies.
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  160. ^ Göbl 1967, 254; Vondrovec tyre 254
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  172. ISBN 9789004257009
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  174. ISBN 978-1-78477-017-4
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  175. ISBN 9789004257009
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  188. ^ "While stonepaste vessels are often attributed to the Seljuq period, some of the most iconic productions in the medium took place after this dynasty lost control over its eastern territories to other Central Asian Turkic groups, such as the Khwarezm-Shahis" in Rugiadi, Martina. "Ceramic Technology in the Seljuq Period: Stonepaste in Syria and Iran in the Twelfth and Early Thirteenth Centuries". www.metmuseum.org. Metropolitan Museum of Art (2021). Retrieved 1 February 2023.
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    . Retrieved 20 November 2016.
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  197. ^ See Barnes, Parekh and Hudson, p. 87; Barraclough, p. 127; Historical Maps on File, p. 2.27; and LACMA for differing versions of the boundaries of the khanate.
  198. ^ Dai Matsui – A Mongolian Decree from the Chaghataid Khanate Discovered at Dunhuang. Aspects of Research into Central Asian Buddhism, 2008, pp. 159–178
  199. ^ Marozzi, Justin (2004). Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, conqueror of the world. HarperCollins.
  200. ^ B.F. Manz; W.M. Thackston; D.J. Roxburgh; L. Golombek; L. Komaroff; R.E. Darley-Doran (2007). "Timurids". Encyclopedia of Islam, online edition. "During the Timurid period, three languages, Persian, Turkish, and Arabic were in use. The major language of the period was Persian, the native language of the Tajik (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban Turks. Persian served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry."

Sources

  • Arjomand, Said Amir (2012). "Patrimonial state". In Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Mirza, Mahan (eds.). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press.

Notes

  1. ^ The Ghaznavids were a dynasty of Turkic slave-soldiers...[179]

External links

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