Greco-Buddhist art
Years active | 1st century B.C. -5th century A.D. |
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The Greco-Buddhist art or Gandhara art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between Ancient Greek art and Buddhism. It had mainly evolved in the ancient region of Gandhara, located in the northwestern fringe of the Indian subcontinent.
The series of interactions leading to Gandhara art occurred over time, beginning with Alexander the Great's brief incursion into the area, followed by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converting the region to Buddhism.[citation needed] Buddhism became the prominent religion in the Indo-Greek Kingdoms. However, Greco-Buddhist art truly flowered and spread under the Kushan Empire, when the first surviving devotional images of the Buddha were created during the 1st-3rd centuries CE.[1] Gandhara art reached its zenith from the 3rd-5th century CE, when most surviving motifs and artworks were produced.[1]
Gandhara art is characterized by Buddhist subject matter, sometimes adapting Greco-Roman elements, rendered in a style and forms that are heavily influenced by Greco-Roman art. It has the strong idealistic realism and sensuous description of
The representation of the human form in large sculpture had a considerable influence, both to the south in the rest of India, and to the east, where the spread of Buddhism carried its influence as far as Japan.[3]
Historical outline
There has been disagreement among art historians as to whether Gandharan art owes more to the culture established immediately after Alexander's campaigns, or to a synthesis several centuries later between travelling Greco-Roman artists from the eastern Roman Empire in regions where Greek settlers were still important. Most of the considerable quantity of Gandharan art that can be dated comes from after about 50 CE, although some clearly was created earlier.[9] For this reason, some scholars prefer to call this Romano-Indian art,[10] or talk of an "Indo-Classical style".[11]
The French scholar Alfred C. A. Foucher first identified the Western influences on Gandharan art at the end of the 19th century. He was initially a proponent of the continuity between the first Greek settlements and this art, and dated much of the art much earlier than more recent scholars do. However, he later revised his views and datings somewhat. His views as to dates and the crucial period of Western influence came to be widely rejected, but then received considerable support by the discovery of the important deserted city site of Ai-Khanoum (Alexandria on the Oxus), which was excavated in the 1960s and 1970s, where quantities of clearly Greek-influenced art were found, datable to the 3rd and (mostly) 2nd centuries BCE.[12]
Greco-Buddhist art originated after a series of cultural exchanges between populations. During the time of Alexander the Great's military campaign in the Indian subcontinent and South Asia, Buddhism was mostly limited to North Eastern India and not common in North Western India, where the Greek satrapies formed. Buddhism became widespread throughout South and Central Asia under the Maurya Empire. The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converted his Greek subjects among others to Buddhism as mentioned in his Edicts of Ashoka.[13]
Here in the king's domain among the Yavanas (Greeks), the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma.
— Ashoka, Rock Edict 13
After the overthrow of the Maurya Empire by the
The Yavana (Greek) king Menander I was given the title of Soter ("Savior"), presumably for his aid of Buddhists that were being persecuted. According to the Milinda Panha, Menander was a devout Buddhist and achieved the title of an arhat, and was buried in a stupa according to the Buddhist fashion. Following the death of Menander, the Indo-Greek Kingdoms disintegrated and their realm was conquered by invading Indo-Scythians or other regional entities. The Indo-Scythians were in turn subjugated by the Kushan Empire as the Western Satraps and the Kushan Empire would consolidate power throughout most of Central Asia and North India. The Kushan Emperor Kanishka, was also a devout Buddhist and Buddhism and its art flourished during the Kushan Era. Furthermore, he was responsible for spreading Mahayana Buddhism and Buddhist art throughout the Silk Road.
Early Buddhist art and aniconic Buddhist representations
Buddhist art first became evident and widespread under the Maurya Empire during the reign of
Interestingly, although these sculptures depict other humans and various divinities in anthropomorphic forms, the Buddha is purposefully not shown in a human representation. Instead, the Buddha is depicted with various symbols.
Hellenistic art in South Asia
The clearest examples of Hellenistic art are found in the coins of the
These Hellenistic kingdoms established cities on the Greek model, such as in Ai-Khanoum in Bactria, displaying purely Hellenistic architectural features, Hellenistic statuary, and remains of Aristotelician papyrus prints and coin hoards.
These Greek elements penetrated India quite early as shown by the Hellenistic
Early Gandhara creations: stone palettes (2nd century BC – 1st century AD)
The Greeks in Asia are well known archaeologically for their
Early stone palettes | |
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Interaction
As soon as the Greeks invaded Northwestern South Asia to form the
Early contributions of Gandharan artists to Buddhist art (2nd-1st century BC)
According to some authors, Hellenistic sculptors had some connection with the creation of Buddhist art at
Sanchi
Around 115 BC, the embassy of
Also around the same time, circa 115 BC, it is known that architectural decorations such as decorative reliefs started to be introduced at nearby
Early reliefs at Stupa No 2 (circa 115 BC)
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Sanchi, Stupa No2 |
Bharhut
Craftsmen from the
Cunningham explained that the Kharosthi letters were found on the ballusters between the architraves of the gateway, but none on the railings which all had Indian markings, summarizing that the gateways, which are artistically more refined, must have been made by artists from the North, whereas the railings were made by local artists.[30] The Bharhut gateway is dated to 100-75 BC (most probably 75 BC based on artistic analysis).[31]
The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of the
Characteristics of Greco-Buddhist art
Artistic model
Later, Greco-Buddhist art depicts the
Material
Stucco as well as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings. Stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expressiveness to be given to the sculpture. Sculpting in stucco was popular wherever Buddhism spread from Gandhara - India, Afghanistan, Central Asia and China.
Stylistic evolution
Stylistically, Greco-Buddhist art started by being extremely fine and realistic, as apparent on the standing Buddhas, with "a realistic treatment of the folds and on some even a hint of modelled volume that characterizes the best Greek work" (Boardman). It then lost this sophisticated realism, becoming progressively more symbolic and decorative over the centuries.
Architecture
The presence of
Later in Hadda, the Greek divinity Atlas is represented holding Buddhist monuments with decorated Greek columns. The motif was adopted extensively throughout the Indian sub-continent, Atlas being substituted for the Indian Yaksa in the monuments of the Shunga Empire around the 2nd century BC.
Buddha
Sometime between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD, the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha were developed. These were absent from earlier strata of Buddhist art, which preferred to represent the Buddha with symbols such as the stupa, the Bodhi tree, the empty seat, the wheel, or the footprints. But the innovative anthropomorphic Buddha image immediately reached a very high level of sculptural sophistication, naturally inspired by the sculptural styles of Hellenistic Greece.
Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the Greek
Foucher especially considered Hellenistic free-standing Buddhas as "the most beautiful, and probably the most ancient of the Buddhas", assigning them to the 1st century BC, and making them the starting point of the anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", Marshall, p101).
Development
There is some debate regarding the exact date for the development of the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha, and this has a bearing on whether the innovation came directly from the
Such dating, as well as the general Hellenistic style and pose of the Buddha on the Bimaran casket (
Chinese texts and mural paintings in the Tarim Basin city of Dunhuang describe ambassador Zhang Qian traveling to Central Asia, as far as Bactria around 130 BC. The same murals describe Emperor Wu (156–87 BC) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining them as "golden men brought in 120 BC by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads." Although there is no other mention of Emperor Wu worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature, the murals suggest that statues of the Buddha were already in existence during the 2nd century BC, connecting them directly to the time of the Indo-Greeks.
The
- "The Emperor, to discover the true doctrine, sent an envoy to Tianzhu(India) to inquire about the Buddha’s doctrine, after which paintings and statues [of the Buddha] appeared in the Middle Kingdom." (Book of Later Han, trans. John Hill)
Artistic model
In Gandharan art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek god
Soon, the figure of the Buddha was incorporated within architectural designs, such as Corinthian pillars and friezes. Scenes of the life of the Buddha are typically depicted in a Greek architectural environment, with protagonist wearing Greek clothes.
Gods and Bodhisattvas
Deities from the Greek mythological pantheon also tend to be incorporated in Buddhist representations, displaying a strong syncretism. In particular,
Particularly under the Kushans, there are also numerous representations of richly adorned, princely
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Gandharan Atalanta
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Winged Atalante.
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Gandhara Poseidon (Ancient Orient Museum)
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"Laughing boy" from Hadda
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Head of a bodhisattva, Gandhara ca. 4th century
Cupids
Winged cupids are another popular motif in Greco-Buddhist art. They usually fly in pair, holding a wreath, the Greek symbol of victory and kingship, over the Buddha.
These figures, also known as "
Scenes of cupids holding rich
Devotees
Some Greco-Buddhist friezes represent groups of donors or devotees, giving interesting insights into the cultural identity of those who participated in the Buddhist cult.
Some groups, often described as the "
About a century later, friezes also depict Kushan devotees, usually with the Buddha as the central figure.
Fantastic animals
Various fantastic animal deities of Hellenic origin were used as decorative elements in Buddhist temples, often triangular friezes in staircases or in front of Buddhist altars. The origin of these motifs can be found in Greece in the 5th century BC, and later in the designs of Greco-Bactrian perfume trays as those discovered in
As fantastic animals of the sea, they were, in early Buddhism, supposed to safely bring the souls of dead people to Paradise beyond the waters. These motifs were later adopted in Indian art, where they influenced the depiction of the Indian monster
Kushan contribution
The later part of Greco-Buddhist art in northwestern India is usually associated with the Kushan Empire. The Kushans were nomadic people who started migrating from the Tarim Basin in Central Asia from around 170 BC and ended up founding an empire in northwestern India from the 2nd century BC. After conquering the lands once inhabited by Greco-Bactrians and Indo-Greeks, the Kushan Empire adopted Greco-Buddhist art.
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Maitreya, with Kushan devotee couple. 2nd century Gandhara.
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Maitreya, with Kushan devotees, left and right. 2nd century Gandhara.
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Maitreya, with Indian (left) and Kushan (right) devotees.
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Kushans worshipping the Buddha's bowl. 2nd century Gandhara.
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Buddha triad and kneeling Kushan devotee couple. 3rd century.
Later period (5th-7th centuries)
The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara essentially ends with the 5th-7th centuries. A late evolution is the appearance of a halo and mandorla surrounding the Buddha figure.[38] The last stages correspond roughly to the destruction of the Alchon Huns, when the art of Gandhara, becomes essentially extinct. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India in c. 630 AD, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.[39]
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Seated Buddha with halo and mandorla 5th-6th century Gandhara.
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The Buddha with a radiate mandorla, Gandhara, 6th century
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Last stages of Greco-Buddhist art. 7th century, Ghorband District, Afghanistan.
Southern influences
Art of the Shunga
Examples of the influence of Hellenistic or Greco-Buddhist art on the art of the Shunga Empire (183-73 BC) are usually faint. The main religion, at least at the beginning, seems to have been Hinduism, although some late Buddhist realizations in Madhya Pradesh as also known, such as some architectural expansions that were done at the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut, originally started under King Ashoka.
Art of Mathura
The representations of the Buddha in
In terms of artistic predispositions for the first representations of the Buddha, Greek art provided a very natural and centuries-old background for an anthropomorphic representation of a divinity, while on the contrary "there was nothing in earlier Indian statuary to suggest such a treatment of form or dress, and the Hindu pantheon provided no adequate model for an aristocratic and wholly human deity" (Boardman).
The Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and key design elements such as the curly hair, and folded garment. Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reflect warmer climatic conditions, as they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tend to cover only one shoulder instead of both. Also, facial types also tend to become more Indianized. Banerjee in Hellenism in ancient India describes "the mixed character of the Mathura School in which we find on the one hand, a direct continuation of the old Indian art of Bharhut and Sanchi and on the other hand, the classical influence derived from Gandhara".
The influence of Greek art can be felt beyond Mathura, as far as
Incidentally, Hindu art started to develop from the 1st to the 2nd century AD and found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. It progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements however, in contrast with the general balance and simplicity of Buddhist art.
The art of Mathura features frequent sexual imagery. Female images with bare breasts, nude below the waist, displaying labia and female genitalia are common. These images are more sexually explicit than those of earlier or later periods.
Arts of Western India
It has been suggested that the art of
The site of Devnimori included numerous terracotta Buddhist sculptures (but no stone sculptures), which are among the earliest sculptures that can be found in Gujarat.[43] The style is clearly influenced by the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.[44]
The
Art of the Gupta
The art of Mathura acquired progressively more Indian elements and reached a very high sophistication during the Gupta Empire, between the 4th and the 6th century AD. The art of the Gupta is considered as the final pinnacle of Indian art reflecting Hindu, Buddhist and Jain iconography.
Hellenistic elements are still clearly visible in the purity of the statuary and the folds of the clothing, but are improved upon with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone. Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha.
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Buddha of the Gupta period, 5th century, Mathura.
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Head of a Buddha, Gupta period, 6th century.
Expansion in Central Asia
Greco-Buddhist artistic influences naturally followed Buddhism in its expansion to Central and East Asia from the 1st century BC.
Bactria
When Buddhism expanded in Central Asia from the 1st century AD, Bactria saw the results of the
The most striking of these realizations are the
In another area of Bactria called
Most of the remaining art of Bactria was destroyed from the 5th century onward: the Buddhists were often blamed for
Tarim Basin
The art of the Tarim Basin, also called Serindian art, is the art that developed from the 2nd through the 11th century in Serindia or Xinjiang, the western region of China that forms part of Central Asia. It derives from the art of the Gandhara and clearly combines Indian traditions with Greek and Roman influences. Buddhist missionaries travelling on the Silk Road introduced this art, along with Buddhism itself, into Serindia, where it mixed with Chinese and Persian influences.
Influences in East Asia
The arts of China, Korea and Japan adopted Greco-Buddhist influences, but also added many local elements as well. What remains identifiable from Greco-Buddhist art are realism in sculpture, clothing with elaborate folds, curly hairstyles, and winged figures holding wreaths.
China
Greco-Buddhist influences are found in Chinese Buddhist art, with local and temporal variations depending on the dynasties that adopted Buddhism. Money tree artifacts from the Han dynasty often contain small depictions of the Buddha similar to Gandhara styles, such as the high ushnisha, vertical hair bun, moustache, and symmetrical depictions of the robe and folds of the arms.[45]
Some
Japan
In Japan, Buddhist art developed as the country converted to Buddhism in AD 548. After the adoption of Buddhism, items of the
Greek influence is also found in depictions of the wind god Fūjin, which shows similarities with the god Boreas. Both hold a "wind bag" above their head in a similar pose.[47]
Influences on Southeast Asian art
The Indian civilization proved very influential on the cultures of Southeast Asia. Most countries adopted Indian writing and culture, together with Hinduism and Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism.
The influence of Greco-Buddhist art is still visible in most of the representation of the Buddha in Southeast Asia, through their idealism, realism and details of dress, although they tend to intermix with Indian Hindu art, and they progressively acquire more local elements.
Museums
Part of a series on the |
History of Greek art |
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Major collections
- Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan (largest collection in the world).
- Lahore Museum, Lahore, Pakistan.
- Taxila Museum, Taxila, Pakistan.
- National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi, Pakistan.
- Kolkata, West Bengal, India (largest collection in India).
- Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh, India (627 artifacts; second largest in India).
- Mathura, India.
- National Museum, New Delhi, India
- British Museum, London, Great Britain (about 100 artifacts), such as Seated Buddha from Gandhara
- Tokyo National Museum, Tokyo, Japan (about 50 artifacts)
- National Museum of Oriental Art, Rome, Italy (about 80 artifacts)
- Museum of Asian Art, Dahlem, Berlin, Germany.
Small collections
- Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, United States
- Ancient Orient Museum, Tokyo, Japan (About 20 artifacts)
- Victoria and Albert Museum, London, Great Britain (About 30 artifacts)
- City Museum of Ancient Art in Palazzo Madama, Turin, Italy.
- New York City, NY, United States.
Private collections
- Collection de Marteau, Brussels, Belgium.
Timeline and influence of Greco-Buddhist art | |||||
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Periods | Northern Asia | Central Asia | Gandhara | India | Southeast Asia |
5th century BCE | Birth of Buddhism |
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4th century BCE | Occupation by Alexander the Great (330 BCE) |
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3rd-2nd century BCE | Hellenistic art )
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) | Introduction of Buddhism to Myanmar | ||
2nd-1st century BCE | China, Han dynasty First mention of Buddhist statues brought from Central Asia (120 BCE) |
Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BCE-10 CE) Buddhist symbolism and proselytism |
Shunga Empire (185-73 BCE) |
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1st century BCE | Yuezhi Nomadic invaders, who became Hellenized and propagated Buddhism |
Indo-Scythians (80-20 CE) |
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1st century CE | Official start of Buddhism in China . Arrival of statues of the Buddha in 70 CE.
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Indo-Parthians |
Art of Mathura |
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1st-3rd century CE | First known Buddha statues in China (later Han, c.200 CE) |
Kushan Empire (10-350 CE) |
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4th-6th century CE | Tarim Basin China Start of Buddhism in Japan |
Bactria | Gupta Empire (320-550 CE) |
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7th-13th century CE | Japan |
Islamic invasions | Pala Empire (11th century) |
Southeast Asia Introduction of Theravada from Sri Lanka in the 11th century |
See also
- Kushan art
- Indo-Greek art
- Buddhist art
- Greco-Buddhism
- Index of Buddhism-related articles
- History of Buddhism
Notes
- ^ a b The art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2007-12-01.
- ^ Craven, 40, 70, 84; Harle, 126
- ^ Craven, 100-101; Harle, 84
- ISBN 9780199340378. Archivedfrom the original on 19 February 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
- ISBN 0226742210. Archivedfrom the original on 2022-10-05. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
- ^ Davies, Cuthbert Collin (1959). An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula. Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 0-89005-109-7.
- ISBN 3-14-100919-8.
- ^ Rowland, 125-128
- ^ The title, for example, of Rowland's "Part 3".
- ^ Rowland, 126
- ^ Harle, 82-83; Rowland, 126
- ^ Rowland, 121
- ^ Rowland, 122, 126
- ^ Harle, 84; Craven, 97
- ^ "Mauryan Period and the Rise of Buddhism | Asian Art History".
- ^ ISBN 978-1-59030-594-2.
- ^ the "pilaster capitals with Greek florals and a form which is of Greek origin (though generally described as Persian) go back to Late Archaic."in "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" John Boardman, Princeton University Press, 1993, p.110
- ^ Greek Gods in the East, Stančo, Ladislav, Charles University in Prague, Karolinum Press, 2012 p.167
- ^ "Gandhara palette: The so-called palettes or 'toilet trays' of the late second century BC and the first century AD depicting Classical scenes" in The Monuments of Afghanistan: History, Archaeology and Architecture, Warwick Ball, I. B. Tauris, 2008, p.115
- ^ "There is evidence of Hellensitic sculptors being in touch with Sanchi and Bharhut" in The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, p.9
- ^ a b c The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, p.17-18 Note 3
- ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999 p.170
- ^ a b c d An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, by Amalananda Ghosh, BRILL p.295
- ^ a b c Buddhist Architecture Huu Phuoc Le Grafikol, 2010 p.161
- ^ a b c Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, by Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 p.90
- ^ Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 p.88ff
- ^ An Indian Statuette From Pompeii, Mirella Levi D'Ancona, in Artibus Asiae, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1950) p.171
- ^ a b The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, Princeton University Press, p.115
- ^ Sungas, the donor of the gateways, must have sent his own party of workmen to make them, while the smaller gifts of pillars and rails were executed by the local artists." in The stūpa of Bharhut: a Buddhist monument ornamented with numerous sculptures illustrative of Buddhist legend and history in the third century B. C, by Alexander Cunningham p. 8(Public Domain)
- ^ a b Buddhist Architecture, Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 p.149ff
- ^ Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor, Charles Allen, Hachette UK, 2012 p.122
- ^ Buddhist Architecture by Huu Phuoc Le p.161
- ^ Tarzi, Zémaryalai. "Le site ruiné de Hadda": 62 ff.
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(help) - ^ "Tepe Shotor Tableau. Hadda, Nangarhar Province. ACKU Images System". ackuimages.photoshelter.com.
- ^ Vajrapani-Herakles:Image Archived 2013-12-16 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The origin of the image of Vajrapani should be explained. This deity is the protector and guide of the Buddha Sakyamuni. His image was modelled after that of Hercules. (...) The Gandharan Vajrapani was transformed in Central Asia and China and afterwards transmitted to Japan, where it exerted stylistic influences on the wrestler-like statues of the Guardian Deities (Nio)." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p23)
- ^ "In Gandhara the appearance of a halo surrounding an entire figure occurs only in the latest phases of artistic production, in the fifth and sixth centuries. By this time in Afghanistan the halo/mandorla had become quite common and is the format that took hold at Central Asian Buddhist sites." in "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
- ISBN 978-90-474-2006-4.
- ^ The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā
- ^ ISBN 9004069410.
- ^ ISBN 978-9004185258.
- ISBN 9004069410.
- ^ The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2
- ^ "Crossroads of Asia" p209
- ^ "Needless to say, the influence of Greek art on Japanese Buddhist art, via the Buddhist art of Gandhara and India, was already partly known in, for example, the comparison of the wavy drapery of the Buddha images, in what was, originally, a typical Greek style" (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p19)
- ^ "The Japanese wind god images do not belong to a separate tradition apart from that of their Western counter-parts but share the same origins. (...) One of the characteristics of these Far Eastern wind god images is the wind bag held by this god with both hands, the origin of which can be traced back to the shawl or mantle worn by Boreas/ Oado." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p21)
- ^ "Musee Guimet and the Greek Buddhas of Gandhara". Minor Sights. 6 April 2014. Retrieved 2015-04-30.
References
- John Boardman, The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity (Princeton University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-691-03680-2
- ISBN 0500201463
- ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1
- Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
- Sir John Marshall, The Buddhist art of Gandhara, 1960, ISBN 81-215-0967-X
- Michell, George (2000), Hindu Art and Architecture, 2000, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 978-0500203378
- Rowland, Benjamin, The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, ISBN 0140561021
- Gauranga Nath Banerjee, Hellenism in ancient India (Delhi: Munshi Ram Manohar Lal., 1961) ISBN 0-8364-2910-9
- Jerry H. Bentley, Old World Encounters. Cross-cultural contacts and exchanges in pre-modern times (Oxford University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-19-507639-7
- Alexander the Great: East-West Cultural contacts from Greece to Japan (NHK and Tokyo National Museum, 2003)
- W.W. Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and India Cambridge University Press
- ISBN 0-8021-3136-0
- Marian Wenzel, Echoes of Alexander the Great: Silk route portraits from Gandhara (Eklisa Anstalt, 2000) ISBN 1-58886-014-0
- The Crossroads of Asia. Transformation in Image and Symbol, 1992, ISBN 0-9518399-1-8
Further reading
- Along the ancient silk routes: Central Asian art from the West Berlin State Museums. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1982. ISBN 9780870993008.
- Ihsan Ali and Muhammad Naeem Qazi, Gandharan Sculptures in Peshawar Museum, Hazara University, Mansehra.
- Alfred Foucher, 1865-1952; Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, L'art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra : étude sur les origines de l'influence classique dans l'art bouddhique de l'Inde et de l'Extrême-Orient (1905), Paris : E. Leroux.
External links
- Media related to Greco-Buddhist art at Wikimedia Commons