Greco-Buddhist art

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(Redirected from
Art of Gandhara
)
Gandhara art
Top: Standing Buddha from Gandhara, 1st-2nd century AD Centre:The Bimaran casket, representing the Buddha, is dated to around 30–10 BC. British Museum; Bottom: The Bodhisattva Maitreya, 2nd century AD, Gandhara
Years active1st century B.C. -5th century A.D.

The Greco-Buddhist art or Gandhara art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between Ancient Greek art and Buddhism. It had mainly evolved in the ancient region of Gandhara, located in the northwestern fringe of the Indian subcontinent.

The series of interactions leading to Gandhara art occurred over time, beginning with Alexander the Great's brief incursion into the area, followed by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converting the region to Buddhism.[citation needed] Buddhism became the prominent religion in the Indo-Greek Kingdoms. However, Greco-Buddhist art truly flowered and spread under the Kushan Empire, when the first surviving devotional images of the Buddha were created during the 1st-3rd centuries CE.[1] Gandhara art reached its zenith from the 3rd-5th century CE, when most surviving motifs and artworks were produced.[1]

Gandhara art is characterized by Buddhist subject matter, sometimes adapting Greco-Roman elements, rendered in a style and forms that are heavily influenced by Greco-Roman art. It has the strong idealistic realism and sensuous description of

Gautama Buddha in human form, ending the early period of aniconism in Buddhism.[2]

The representation of the human form in large sculpture had a considerable influence, both to the south in the rest of India, and to the east, where the spread of Buddhism carried its influence as far as Japan.[3]

Buddha and a naked Vajrapani in a frieze at Jamal Garhi, Gandhara
.

Historical outline

Chinese Empire (Han dynasty) through Silk Road during the Kushan Era. The overland and maritime "Silk Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism".[4]
The Indo-Greek Kingdoms in 100–150 BCE.[5][6][7][8]

There has been disagreement among art historians as to whether Gandharan art owes more to the culture established immediately after Alexander's campaigns, or to a synthesis several centuries later between travelling Greco-Roman artists from the eastern Roman Empire in regions where Greek settlers were still important. Most of the considerable quantity of Gandharan art that can be dated comes from after about 50 CE, although some clearly was created earlier.[9] For this reason, some scholars prefer to call this Romano-Indian art,[10] or talk of an "Indo-Classical style".[11]

The French scholar Alfred C. A. Foucher first identified the Western influences on Gandharan art at the end of the 19th century. He was initially a proponent of the continuity between the first Greek settlements and this art, and dated much of the art much earlier than more recent scholars do. However, he later revised his views and datings somewhat. His views as to dates and the crucial period of Western influence came to be widely rejected, but then received considerable support by the discovery of the important deserted city site of Ai-Khanoum (Alexandria on the Oxus), which was excavated in the 1960s and 1970s, where quantities of clearly Greek-influenced art were found, datable to the 3rd and (mostly) 2nd centuries BCE.[12]

Greco-Buddhist art originated after a series of cultural exchanges between populations. During the time of Alexander the Great's military campaign in the Indian subcontinent and South Asia, Buddhism was mostly limited to North Eastern India and not common in North Western India, where the Greek satrapies formed. Buddhism became widespread throughout South and Central Asia under the Maurya Empire. The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converted his Greek subjects among others to Buddhism as mentioned in his Edicts of Ashoka.[13]

Here in the king's domain among the Yavanas (Greeks), the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma.

— Ashoka, Rock Edict 13

After the overthrow of the Maurya Empire by the

Indo-Greeks and especially later under the Kushan Empire, Greco-Buddhist art flourished in the area of Gandhara and even spread to Central Asia, affecting the art of the Tarim Basin, as well as permeating again into India.[15]

The Yavana (Greek) king Menander I was given the title of Soter ("Savior"), presumably for his aid of Buddhists that were being persecuted. According to the Milinda Panha, Menander was a devout Buddhist and achieved the title of an arhat, and was buried in a stupa according to the Buddhist fashion. Following the death of Menander, the Indo-Greek Kingdoms disintegrated and their realm was conquered by invading Indo-Scythians or other regional entities. The Indo-Scythians were in turn subjugated by the Kushan Empire as the Western Satraps and the Kushan Empire would consolidate power throughout most of Central Asia and North India. The Kushan Emperor Kanishka, was also a devout Buddhist and Buddhism and its art flourished during the Kushan Era. Furthermore, he was responsible for spreading Mahayana Buddhism and Buddhist art throughout the Silk Road.

Early Buddhist art and aniconic Buddhist representations

Buddhist art first became evident and widespread under the Maurya Empire during the reign of

Buddha including his birth, royal processions, the Great Departure, enlightenment
, and acension from this world.

Interestingly, although these sculptures depict other humans and various divinities in anthropomorphic forms, the Buddha is purposefully not shown in a human representation. Instead, the Buddha is depicted with various symbols.

Shakyamuni Buddha achieving enlightenment, and the Buddha footprints to convey his legacy after moving on from this world. There is much debate on why the Buddha was not depicted as a human unlike other sculptures found throughout Buddhist art. It is considered that the orthodox Buddhists choose not to represent the Shakyamuni Buddha out of respect, as giving him a human form would bound him to this Earth as a living being which contradicts him obtaining his goal of enlightenment and achieving moksha.[17]

Hellenistic art in South Asia

Herakles
, holding a lion skin and a club resting over the arm. The text reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ – BASILÉŌS DĒMĒTRÍOU "of King Demetrius".

The clearest examples of Hellenistic art are found in the coins of the

Greco-Bactrian kings of the period, such as Demetrius I of Bactria
. Many coins of the Greco-Bactrian kings have been unearthed, including the largest silver and gold coins ever minted in the Hellenistic world, ranking among the best in artistic and technical sophistication: they "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often more bland descriptions of their royal contemporaries further West". ("Greece and the Hellenistic world").

, 1st–2nd century AD).

These Hellenistic kingdoms established cities on the Greek model, such as in Ai-Khanoum in Bactria, displaying purely Hellenistic architectural features, Hellenistic statuary, and remains of Aristotelician papyrus prints and coin hoards.

These Greek elements penetrated India quite early as shown by the Hellenistic

Ketos
sea monster are found.

Early Gandhara creations: stone palettes (2nd century BC – 1st century AD)

The Greeks in Asia are well known archaeologically for their

Indo-Parthians
, but they practically disappeared after the 1st century.

Early stone palettes

Interaction

As soon as the Greeks invaded Northwestern South Asia to form the

Indo-Greek kingdom, a fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist elements started to appear, encouraged by the benevolence of the Greek kings towards Buddhism. This artistic trend then developed for several centuries and seemed to flourish further during the Kushan Empire
from the 1st century AD.

Early contributions of Gandharan artists to Buddhist art (2nd-1st century BC)

According to some authors, Hellenistic sculptors had some connection with the creation of Buddhist art at

Persepolitan order, and the abundant use of the Hellenistic flame palmette or honeysuckle motif.[22]

Sanchi

Around 115 BC, the embassy of

Sungas king Bhagabhadra in Vidisha is recorded. In the Sunga capital, Heliodorus constructed the Heliodorus pillar in a dedication to Vāsudeva. This would indicate that relations between the Indo-Greeks and the Sungas had improved by that time, that people traveled between the two realms, and also that the Indo-Greeks readily followed Indian religions.[23]

Also around the same time, circa 115 BC, it is known that architectural decorations such as decorative reliefs started to be introduced at nearby

Brahmi script.[24][25] This seems to imply that these foreign workers were responsible for some of the earliest motifs and figures that can be found on the railings of the stupa.[24][25]

Early reliefs at
Stupa No 2
(circa 115 BC)
Sanchi, Stupa No2
Kharoshti point to craftsmen from the north-west (region of Gandhara) for the earliest reliefs at Sanchi, circa 115 BC.[24][26][27]

Bharhut

150-100 BC.

Craftsmen from the

Indo-Greek realm, are known to have been involved in the construction of the gateways at Bharhut, which are dated to 100-75 BC:[31][32] this is because mason's marks in Kharosthi have been found on several elements of the Bharhut remains, indicating that some of the builders at least came from the north, particularly from Gandhara where the Kharoshti script was in use.[29][22][33]

Statues on the architraves of the torana gateway, associated with Kharosthi marks. 100-75 BC.

Cunningham explained that the Kharosthi letters were found on the ballusters between the architraves of the gateway, but none on the railings which all had Indian markings, summarizing that the gateways, which are artistically more refined, must have been made by artists from the North, whereas the railings were made by local artists.[30] The Bharhut gateway is dated to 100-75 BC (most probably 75 BC based on artistic analysis).[31]

The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of the

Persepolitan order, and the abundant use of the Hellenistic flame palmette or honeysuckle motif.[22]

Characteristics of Greco-Buddhist art

Artistic model

Left image: Classical Greek Corinthian anta capital.
Right image: An Indo-Corinthian capital with a palmette and the Buddha at its centre, 3-4th century, Gandhara.
Trojan horse was depicted in the art of Gandhara. British Museum
.

Later, Greco-Buddhist art depicts the

Herakles) and Indian gods (Indra
).

Material

Stucco as well as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings. Stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expressiveness to be given to the sculpture. Sculpting in stucco was popular wherever Buddhism spread from Gandhara - India, Afghanistan, Central Asia and China.

Stylistic evolution

Stylistically, Greco-Buddhist art started by being extremely fine and realistic, as apparent on the standing Buddhas, with "a realistic treatment of the folds and on some even a hint of modelled volume that characterizes the best Greek work" (Boardman). It then lost this sophisticated realism, becoming progressively more symbolic and decorative over the centuries.

Architecture

he Titan Atlas supporting a Buddhist monument, from Hadda, Afghanistan
The Titan Atlas, supporting a Buddhist monument, Hadda.

The presence of

Corinthian columns
in excellent Hellenistic execution.

Later in Hadda, the Greek divinity Atlas is represented holding Buddhist monuments with decorated Greek columns. The motif was adopted extensively throughout the Indian sub-continent, Atlas being substituted for the Indian Yaksa in the monuments of the Shunga Empire around the 2nd century BC.

Buddha

Seated Buddha in Hellenistic style, Tapa Shotor, 2nd century AD.[34][35]
Seated Buddha, 300-500 AD, from near Jamal Garhi, Pakistan, now Asian Art Museum in San Francisco.

Sometime between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD, the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha were developed. These were absent from earlier strata of Buddhist art, which preferred to represent the Buddha with symbols such as the stupa, the Bodhi tree, the empty seat, the wheel, or the footprints. But the innovative anthropomorphic Buddha image immediately reached a very high level of sculptural sophistication, naturally inspired by the sculptural styles of Hellenistic Greece.

Buddha teaching. Kushan period. National Museum, Delhi

Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the Greek

realism (See: Greek art
). Some of the standing Buddhas (as the one pictured) were sculpted using the specific Greek technique of making the hands and sometimes the feet in marble to increase the realistic effect, and the rest of the body in another material.

Foucher especially considered Hellenistic free-standing Buddhas as "the most beautiful, and probably the most ancient of the Buddhas", assigning them to the 1st century BC, and making them the starting point of the anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", Marshall, p101).

Development

Turin City Museum of Ancient Art
).

There is some debate regarding the exact date for the development of the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha, and this has a bearing on whether the innovation came directly from the

Indo-Parthians or the Kushans under Hellenistic artistic influence. Most of the early images of the Buddha (especially those of the standing Buddha) are anepigraphic, which makes it difficult date definitely. The earliest known image of the Buddha with approximate dating is the Bimaran casket, which was found buried with coins of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II (or possibly Azes I
), indicating a 30–10 BC date, although this date is not undisputed.

Such dating, as well as the general Hellenistic style and pose of the Buddha on the Bimaran casket (

Kanishka casket (c. AD 120) and Kanishka
's Buddhist coins. These works indicate that the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha was already extant in the 1st century AD.

Chinese texts and mural paintings in the Tarim Basin city of Dunhuang describe ambassador Zhang Qian traveling to Central Asia, as far as Bactria around 130 BC. The same murals describe Emperor Wu (156–87 BC) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining them as "golden men brought in 120 BC by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads." Although there is no other mention of Emperor Wu worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature, the murals suggest that statues of the Buddha were already in existence during the 2nd century BC, connecting them directly to the time of the Indo-Greeks.

The

Book of Later Han describes the enquiry about Buddhism made around AD 67 by the emperor Emperor Ming (AD 58–75). He sent an envoy to the Yuezhi
in northwestern India, who brought back paintings and statues of the Buddha, confirming their existence before that date:

"The Emperor, to discover the true doctrine, sent an envoy to
Tianzhu
(India) to inquire about the Buddha’s doctrine, after which paintings and statues [of the Buddha] appeared in the Middle Kingdom."
(Book of Later Han, trans. John Hill)

Artistic model

Vajrapani-Heracles as the protector of the Buddha, 2nd century AD, from Gandhara
Heracles depiction of Vajrapani as the protector of the Buddha, 2nd century AD, Gandhara, British Museum.

In Gandharan art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek god

Herakles, standing with his club (and later a diamond rod) resting over his arm.[36] This unusual representation of Herakles is the same as the one on the back of Demetrius' coins, and it is exclusively associated to him (and his son Euthydemus II
), seen only on the back of his coins.

Soon, the figure of the Buddha was incorporated within architectural designs, such as Corinthian pillars and friezes. Scenes of the life of the Buddha are typically depicted in a Greek architectural environment, with protagonist wearing Greek clothes.

Gods and Bodhisattvas

bronze figure The Bodhisattva Maitreya, 2nd century, Gandhara
The Bodhisattva Maitreya, 2nd century AD, Gandhara.
Pancika (left) and Hariti (right), 3rd century, Takht-i Bahi, Gandhara, British Museum
.

Deities from the Greek mythological pantheon also tend to be incorporated in Buddhist representations, displaying a strong syncretism. In particular,

Herakles (of the type of the Demetrius coins, with club resting on the arm) has been used abundantly as the representation of Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha.[37] Other Greek deities abundantly used in Greco-Buddhist art are representation of Atlas, and the Greek wind god Boreas. Atlas in particular tends to be involved as a sustaining elements in Buddhist architectural elements. Boreas became the Japanese wind god Fujin through the Greco-Buddhist Wardo/Oado and Chinese Feng Bo/Feng Po ("Uncle Wind"; among various other names). The mother deity Hariti was inspired by Tyche
.

Particularly under the Kushans, there are also numerous representations of richly adorned, princely

Bodhisattvas, characteristic of the Mahayana
form of Buddhism, are represented under the traits of Kushan princes, completed with their canonical accessories.

Cupids

Garland bearers
Garland bearers on a Roman sarcophagus, found in the vicinity of Rome, 130-150 AD.
Garland bearers, Gandhara, c. 2nd-3rd century AD.

Winged cupids are another popular motif in Greco-Buddhist art. They usually fly in pair, holding a wreath, the Greek symbol of victory and kingship, over the Buddha.

Musée Guimet
.

These figures, also known as "

Qizil and Dunhuang
. It is unclear however if the concept of the flying cupids was brought to India from the West, of if it had an independent Indian origin, although Boardman considers it a Classical contribution: "Another Classical motif we found in India is the pair of hovering winged figures, generally called apsaras." (Boardman)

Scenes of cupids holding rich

Amaravati on the eastern coast of India, where the cupids are replaced by yakṣas
.

Devotees

.

Some Greco-Buddhist friezes represent groups of donors or devotees, giving interesting insights into the cultural identity of those who participated in the Buddhist cult.

Some groups, often described as the "

Siddharta
to his bride. It may also just be a festive scene.)

About a century later, friezes also depict Kushan devotees, usually with the Buddha as the central figure.

Fantastic animals

stone fragment An Ichthyo-Centaur, 2nd century Gandhara
An Ichthyo-Centaur, 2nd century Gandhara, Victoria and Albert Museum.

Various fantastic animal deities of Hellenic origin were used as decorative elements in Buddhist temples, often triangular friezes in staircases or in front of Buddhist altars. The origin of these motifs can be found in Greece in the 5th century BC, and later in the designs of Greco-Bactrian perfume trays as those discovered in

sea-monsters
. Similar fantastic animals are found in ancient Egyptian reliefs, and might therefore have been passed on to Bactria and India independently.

As fantastic animals of the sea, they were, in early Buddhism, supposed to safely bring the souls of dead people to Paradise beyond the waters. These motifs were later adopted in Indian art, where they influenced the depiction of the Indian monster

makara, Varuna
's mount.

Kushan contribution

Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd-3rd century AD, Gandhara
.
Buddha
) in Greek script.

The later part of Greco-Buddhist art in northwestern India is usually associated with the Kushan Empire. The Kushans were nomadic people who started migrating from the Tarim Basin in Central Asia from around 170 BC and ended up founding an empire in northwestern India from the 2nd century BC. After conquering the lands once inhabited by Greco-Bactrians and Indo-Greeks, the Kushan Empire adopted Greco-Buddhist art.

  • Maitreya, with Kushan devotee couple. 2nd century Gandhara.
    Maitreya, with Kushan devotee couple. 2nd century Gandhara.
  • Maitreya, with Kushan devotees, left and right. 2nd century Gandhara.
    Maitreya, with Kushan devotees, left and right. 2nd century Gandhara.
  • Maitreya, with Indian (left) and Kushan (right) devotees.
    Maitreya, with Indian (left) and Kushan (right) devotees.
  • Kushans worshipping the Buddha's bowl. 2nd century Gandhara.
    Kushans worshipping the Buddha's bowl. 2nd century Gandhara.
  • Kushan devotee couple, around the Buddha, Brahma and Indra.
    Kushan devotee couple, around the Buddha, Brahma and Indra.
  • The "Kanishka casket," with the Buddha surrounded by Brahma and Indra, and Kanishka on the lower part, AD 127.
    The "
    Kanishka casket," with the Buddha surrounded by Brahma and Indra, and Kanishka
    on the lower part, AD 127.
  • Buddha triad and kneeling Kushan devotee couple. 3rd century.
    Buddha triad and kneeling Kushan devotee couple. 3rd century.

Later period (5th-7th centuries)

The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara essentially ends with the 5th-7th centuries. A late evolution is the appearance of a halo and mandorla surrounding the Buddha figure.[38] The last stages correspond roughly to the destruction of the Alchon Huns, when the art of Gandhara, becomes essentially extinct. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India in c. 630 AD, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.[39]

  • Seated Buddha with halo and mandorla 5th-6th century Gandhara.
    Seated Buddha with halo and mandorla 5th-6th century Gandhara.
  • The Buddha with a radiate mandorla, Gandhara, 6th century
    The Buddha with a radiate mandorla, Gandhara, 6th century
  • Last stages of Greco-Buddhist art. 7th century, Ghorband District, Afghanistan.
    Last stages of Greco-Buddhist art. 7th century, Ghorband District, Afghanistan.

Southern influences

Art of the Shunga

Musee Guimet
.
Calcutta
.

Examples of the influence of Hellenistic or Greco-Buddhist art on the art of the Shunga Empire (183-73 BC) are usually faint. The main religion, at least at the beginning, seems to have been Hinduism, although some late Buddhist realizations in Madhya Pradesh as also known, such as some architectural expansions that were done at the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut, originally started under King Ashoka.

Art of Mathura

Mathura
, 2nd-century AD.
stone fragment A Bodhisattva, 2nd century, Mathura
A Bodhisattva, 2nd century, Mathura

The representations of the Buddha in

Bodhi tree, although some archaic Mathuran sculptural representation of Yaksas
(earth divinities) have been dated to the 1st century BC. Even these Yaksas indicate some Hellenistic influence, possibly dating back to the occupation of Mathura by the Indo-Greeks during the 2nd century BC.

In terms of artistic predispositions for the first representations of the Buddha, Greek art provided a very natural and centuries-old background for an anthropomorphic representation of a divinity, while on the contrary "there was nothing in earlier Indian statuary to suggest such a treatment of form or dress, and the Hindu pantheon provided no adequate model for an aristocratic and wholly human deity" (Boardman).

Amaravati
, 3rd century AD

The Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and key design elements such as the curly hair, and folded garment. Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reflect warmer climatic conditions, as they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tend to cover only one shoulder instead of both. Also, facial types also tend to become more Indianized. Banerjee in Hellenism in ancient India describes "the mixed character of the Mathura School in which we find on the one hand, a direct continuation of the old Indian art of Bharhut and Sanchi and on the other hand, the classical influence derived from Gandhara".

The influence of Greek art can be felt beyond Mathura, as far as

Amaravati
on the East coast of India, as shown by the usage of Greek scrolls in combination with Indian deities. Other motifs such as Greek chariots pulled by four horses can also be found in the same area.

Incidentally, Hindu art started to develop from the 1st to the 2nd century AD and found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. It progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements however, in contrast with the general balance and simplicity of Buddhist art.

The art of Mathura features frequent sexual imagery. Female images with bare breasts, nude below the waist, displaying labia and female genitalia are common. These images are more sexually explicit than those of earlier or later periods.

Arts of Western India

Devnimori, Gujarat
(375-400 AD).
The Buddha in long, heavy robe, a design derived from the art of Gandhara, Ajanta Caves, 5th century AD.[40]

It has been suggested that the art of

Mathura art.[41] At Ajanta, some connections with the art of Gandhara can be noted, and there is evidence of a shared artistic idiom.[42]

The site of Devnimori included numerous terracotta Buddhist sculptures (but no stone sculptures), which are among the earliest sculptures that can be found in Gujarat.[43] The style is clearly influenced by the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.[44]

The

Indo-Scythian Western Satraps (1st century AD-405 AD may have played a role in the transmission of the art of Gandhara to the western Deccan region, as may also have the southern expansion of the Alchon Huns in the 6th-7th century.[42]

Art of the Gupta

The art of Mathura acquired progressively more Indian elements and reached a very high sophistication during the Gupta Empire, between the 4th and the 6th century AD. The art of the Gupta is considered as the final pinnacle of Indian art reflecting Hindu, Buddhist and Jain iconography.

Hellenistic elements are still clearly visible in the purity of the statuary and the folds of the clothing, but are improved upon with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone. Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha.

  • Buddha of the Gupta Empire
    Buddha of the Gupta period, 5th century, Mathura.
  • large stone Head of a Buddha, Gupta period, 6th century.
    Head of a Buddha, Gupta period, 6th century.

Expansion in Central Asia

Greco-Buddhist artistic influences naturally followed Buddhism in its expansion to Central and East Asia from the 1st century BC.

Bactria

Alexandria on the Oxus (Ai-Khanoum
), or the numismatic art of the Greco-Bactrian kings, often considered as the best of the Hellenistic world, and including the largest silver and gold coins ever minted by the Greeks.

When Buddhism expanded in Central Asia from the 1st century AD, Bactria saw the results of the

Greco-Buddhist
syncretism arrive on its territory from India, and a new blend of sculptural representation remained until the Islamic invasions.

The most striking of these realizations are the

Buddhas of Bamyan
. They tend to vary between the 5th and the 9th century AD. Their style is strongly inspired by Hellenistic culture.

In another area of Bactria called

Sasanid
Persians.

Most of the remaining art of Bactria was destroyed from the 5th century onward: the Buddhists were often blamed for

Musee Guimet
in France.

Tarim Basin

terracotta Head of a Bodhisattva, 6th-7th century Tumshuq
Head of a Bodhisattva, 6th-7th century terracotta, Tumshuq (Xinjiang).
three terracotta figures "Heroic gesture of the Bodhisattva", 6th-7th century
"Heroic gesture of the Bodhisattva", 6th-7th century terracotta, Tumshuq (Xinjiang).

The art of the Tarim Basin, also called Serindian art, is the art that developed from the 2nd through the 11th century in Serindia or Xinjiang, the western region of China that forms part of Central Asia. It derives from the art of the Gandhara and clearly combines Indian traditions with Greek and Roman influences. Buddhist missionaries travelling on the Silk Road introduced this art, along with Buddhism itself, into Serindia, where it mixed with Chinese and Persian influences.

Influences in East Asia

The arts of China, Korea and Japan adopted Greco-Buddhist influences, but also added many local elements as well. What remains identifiable from Greco-Buddhist art are realism in sculpture, clothing with elaborate folds, curly hairstyles, and winged figures holding wreaths.

China

Northern Wei dynasty
, AD 443
Fresco describing Emperor Han Wudi (156–87 BC) worshipping two statues of the Buddha
Fresco describing Emperor Wu (156–87 BC) worshipping two statues of the Buddha, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, c. 8th century AD

Greco-Buddhist influences are found in Chinese Buddhist art, with local and temporal variations depending on the dynasties that adopted Buddhism. Money tree artifacts from the Han dynasty often contain small depictions of the Buddha similar to Gandhara styles, such as the high ushnisha, vertical hair bun, moustache, and symmetrical depictions of the robe and folds of the arms.[45]

Some

Northern Wei and Northern Qi statues are reminiscent of Gandharan style standing Buddhas, although in a more symbolic style. Some Eastern Wei
statues display Buddhas with elaborate Greek-style robe folds, and surmounted by flying figures holding a wreath.

Japan

The Buddha, Asuka period, 7th century.
Buddha figure, Japan, Asuka period, 7th century

In Japan, Buddhist art developed as the country converted to Buddhism in AD 548. After the adoption of Buddhism, items of the

Asuka Period display a classical style, with Hellenistic dress and realism characteristic of Greco-Buddhist art. Other art incorporated Chinese and Korean influences, so that Japanese Buddhism became varied in its expression. Elements of Greco-Buddhist art remain to this day, such as depictions of the Buddha with Greek style clothing folds.[46]

Greek influence is also found in depictions of the wind god Fūjin, which shows similarities with the god Boreas. Both hold a "wind bag" above their head in a similar pose.[47]

Iconographical evolution of the Wind God Left: Greek wind god from Hadda, Afghanistan 2nd century. Middle: wind god from Kizil Caves, 7th century Right: Japanese wind god Fūjin, 17th century.
Iconographical evolution of the Wind God.
Left: Greek wind god from Hadda, 2nd century.
Middle: wind god from Kizil, Tarim Basin, 7th century.
Right: Japanese wind god Fujin, 17th century.
Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I.
3) Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha, depicted as Herakles in Gandhara.
4) Nio gate guardian, manifestation of Vajrapani

Influences on Southeast Asian art

Lokesvara, Cambodia
12th century.
Sailendran
art, 9th century.

The Indian civilization proved very influential on the cultures of Southeast Asia. Most countries adopted Indian writing and culture, together with Hinduism and Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism.

The influence of Greco-Buddhist art is still visible in most of the representation of the Buddha in Southeast Asia, through their idealism, realism and details of dress, although they tend to intermix with Indian Hindu art, and they progressively acquire more local elements.

Museums

Major collections

Small collections

Private collections

Timeline and influence of Greco-Buddhist art
Periods Northern Asia Central Asia Gandhara India Southeast Asia
5th century BCE Birth of Buddhism
4th century BCE Occupation by
Alexander the Great (330 BCE)
3rd-2nd century BCE
Hellenistic art
)

Mauryan Empire
(321-185 BCE)
(Aniconic art
)


Introduction of Buddhism to Myanmar
2nd-1st century BCE China, Han dynasty
First mention of Buddhist statues brought from Central Asia (120 BCE)

Indo-Greek kingdom

(180 BCE-10 CE)
Buddhist symbolism and proselytism

Free-standing Buddhas
(

Foucher
&al.)

Shunga Empire
(185-73 BCE)

1st century BCE Yuezhi
Nomadic invaders, who became Hellenized and propagated Buddhism
Indo-Scythians
(80-20 CE)




1st century CE Official start of
Buddhism in China
. Arrival of statues of the Buddha in 70 CE.
Indo-Parthians

Art of
Mathura

1st-3rd century CE
First known Buddha statues in China (later Han, c.200 CE)
Kushan Empire
(10-350 CE)

4th-6th century CE Tarim Basin

China

Start of Buddhism in Japan
Bactria Gupta Empire
(320-550 CE)

Siam, Cambodia and Vietnam
7th-13th century CE Japan
Islamic invasions Pala Empire
(11th century)
Southeast Asia


Introduction of Theravada from Sri Lanka in the 11th century

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b The art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2007-12-01.
  2. ^ Craven, 40, 70, 84; Harle, 126
  3. ^ Craven, 100-101; Harle, 84
  4. from the original on 19 February 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
  5. from the original on 2022-10-05. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
  6. ^ Davies, Cuthbert Collin (1959). An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula. Oxford University Press.
  7. .
  8. .
  9. ^ Rowland, 125-128
  10. ^ The title, for example, of Rowland's "Part 3".
  11. ^ Rowland, 126
  12. ^ Harle, 82-83; Rowland, 126
  13. ^ Rowland, 121
  14. ^ Rowland, 122, 126
  15. ^ Harle, 84; Craven, 97
  16. ^ "Mauryan Period and the Rise of Buddhism | Asian Art History".
  17. ^ .
  18. ^ the "pilaster capitals with Greek florals and a form which is of Greek origin (though generally described as Persian) go back to Late Archaic."in "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" John Boardman, Princeton University Press, 1993, p.110
  19. ^ Greek Gods in the East, Stančo, Ladislav, Charles University in Prague, Karolinum Press, 2012 p.167
  20. ^ "Gandhara palette: The so-called palettes or 'toilet trays' of the late second century BC and the first century AD depicting Classical scenes" in The Monuments of Afghanistan: History, Archaeology and Architecture, Warwick Ball, I. B. Tauris, 2008, p.115
  21. ^ "There is evidence of Hellensitic sculptors being in touch with Sanchi and Bharhut" in The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, p.9
  22. ^ a b c The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, p.17-18 Note 3
  23. ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999 p.170
  24. ^ a b c d An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, by Amalananda Ghosh, BRILL p.295
  25. ^ a b c Buddhist Architecture Huu Phuoc Le Grafikol, 2010 p.161
  26. ^ a b c Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, by Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 p.90
  27. ^ Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 p.88ff
  28. ^ An Indian Statuette From Pompeii, Mirella Levi D'Ancona, in Artibus Asiae, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1950) p.171
  29. ^ a b The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, Princeton University Press, p.115
  30. ^
    Sungas, the donor of the gateways, must have sent his own party of workmen to make them, while the smaller gifts of pillars and rails were executed by the local artists." in The stūpa of Bharhut: a Buddhist monument ornamented with numerous sculptures illustrative of Buddhist legend and history in the third century B. C, by Alexander Cunningham p. 8
    (Public Domain)
  31. ^ a b Buddhist Architecture, Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 p.149ff
  32. ^ Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor, Charles Allen, Hachette UK, 2012 p.122
  33. ^ Buddhist Architecture by Huu Phuoc Le p.161
  34. ^ Tarzi, Zémaryalai. "Le site ruiné de Hadda": 62 ff. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  35. ^ "Tepe Shotor Tableau. Hadda, Nangarhar Province. ACKU Images System". ackuimages.photoshelter.com.
  36. ^ Vajrapani-Herakles:Image Archived 2013-12-16 at the Wayback Machine
  37. ^ "The origin of the image of Vajrapani should be explained. This deity is the protector and guide of the Buddha Sakyamuni. His image was modelled after that of Hercules. (...) The Gandharan Vajrapani was transformed in Central Asia and China and afterwards transmitted to Japan, where it exerted stylistic influences on the wrestler-like statues of the Guardian Deities (Nio)." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p23)
  38. ^ "In Gandhara the appearance of a halo surrounding an entire figure occurs only in the latest phases of artistic production, in the fifth and sixth centuries. By this time in Afghanistan the halo/mandorla had become quite common and is the format that took hold at Central Asian Buddhist sites." in "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
  39. .
  40. ^ The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā
  41. ^ .
  42. ^ .
  43. .
  44. ^ The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2
  45. ^ "Crossroads of Asia" p209
  46. ^ "Needless to say, the influence of Greek art on Japanese Buddhist art, via the Buddhist art of Gandhara and India, was already partly known in, for example, the comparison of the wavy drapery of the Buddha images, in what was, originally, a typical Greek style" (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p19)
  47. ^ "The Japanese wind god images do not belong to a separate tradition apart from that of their Western counter-parts but share the same origins. (...) One of the characteristics of these Far Eastern wind god images is the wind bag held by this god with both hands, the origin of which can be traced back to the shawl or mantle worn by Boreas/ Oado." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p21)
  48. ^ "Musee Guimet and the Greek Buddhas of Gandhara". Minor Sights. 6 April 2014. Retrieved 2015-04-30.

References

Further reading

External links