Indo-Greek art
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Indo-Greek Kingdom |
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Indo-Greek art is the art of the
Early Indo-Bactrian period (200-145 BCE)
The first Indo-Greek kings, also sometimes called "Indo-Bactrian", from
The main known remains from this period are the ruins and artifacts of their city of
Architecture in Bactria
Numerous artefacts and structures were found, particularly in Ai-Khanoum, pointing to a high Hellenistic culture, combined with Eastern influences, starting from the 280-250 BCE period.
Archaeological missions unearthed various structures, some of them perfectly Hellenistic, some other integrating elements of Persian architecture, including a citadel, a Classical theater, a huge palace in Greco-Bactrian architecture, somehow reminiscent of formal Persian palatial architecture, a gymnasium (100 × 100m), one of the largest of Antiquity, various temples, a mosaic representing the Macedonian sun, acanthus leaves and various animals (crabs, dolphins etc...), numerous remains of Classical Corinthian columns.[20] Many artifacts are dated to the 2nd century BCE, which corresponds to the early Indo-Greek period.
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Ai- Khanoum mosaic (central detail in color).
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Architectural antefixae with Hellenistic "Flame palmette" design, Ai-Khanoum.
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Sun dial within two sculpted lion feet.
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Winged antefix, a type only known from Ai-Khanoum.
Sculpture
Various sculptural fragments were also found at Ai-Khanoum, in a rather conventional, classical style, rather impervious to the Hellenizing innovations occurring at the same time in the Mediterranean world. Of special notice, a huge foot fragment in excellent Hellenistic style was recovered, which is estimated to have belonged to a 5-6 meter tall statue (which had to be seated to fit within the height of the columns supporting the Temple). Since the sandal of the foot fragment bears the symbolic depiction of Zeus' thunderbolt, the statue is thought to have been a smaller version of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia.[2][21]
Due to the lack of proper stones for sculptural work in the area of Ai-Khanoum, unbaked clay and stucco modeled on a wooden frame were often used, a technique which would become widespread in Central Asia and the East, especially in Buddhist art. In some cases, only the hands and feet would be made in marble.
In India, only a few Hellenistic sculptural remains have been found, mainly small items in the excavations of Sirkap.
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Sculpture of an old man. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
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Close-up of the same statue.
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Frieze of a naked man wearing a chlamys. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
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Hellenistic gargoyle. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
Artefacts
A variety of artefacts of Hellenistic style, often with Persian influence, were also excavated at Ai-Khanoum, such as a round medallion plate describing the goddess
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Bronze Herakles statuette. Ai-Khanoum. 2nd century BC.
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Bracelet with horned female busts. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
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Stone recipients from Ai-Khanoum. 3rd-2nd century BC.
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Imprint from a mold found in Ai-Khanoum. 3rd-2nd century BC.
First Indo-Greek coinage
After the death of Demetrius, the Bactrian kings
The Hinduist coinage of Agathocles is few but spectacular. Six Indian-standard silver
In Ai-Khanoum, numerous coins were found, down to
Territory/Ruler | Agathocles (190-180 BCE) |
Pantaleon (190-180 BCE) |
Apollodotus I (circa 180 BCE) |
Eucratides (171-145 BCE) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bactria |
||||
India |
artefacts in Bactria
Ancient Indian artefacts were also found in the treasure room of the city, probably brought back by Eucratides from his Indian campaigns, which show a level of artistic interaction between Indian and the Greeks at that time. A narrative plate made of shell inlaid with various materials and colors, thought to represent the Indian myth of Shakuntala was recovered.[31] Also, numerous Indian punch-marked coins were found, about 677 of them in the Palace area of Ai-Khanoum alone, suggesting intense exchanges between Bactria and India.[16][32]
Greek cities in the subcontinent
The first Indo-Greek ruler Demetrius I is said to have built the city of Sirkap, in modern-day Pakistan.
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Some remains at Sirkap.
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Map of Sirkap excavations.
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Sirkap at time of excavations.
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Excavations at Sirkap.
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AKetossea-monster, stone palette, Sirkap, 2nd century BC.
Main Indian period (145 BCE-20 CE)
The main Indian period of the Indo-Greeks starts with the reign of Menander (from c. 165/155 BC) who has been described as the greatest of the Indo-Greek Kings.[35]
The remains of the Greeks in South Asia essentially revolve around city ruins, stone palettes, a few Buddhist artefacts, and their abundant coinage.
Coinage
The Indo-Greek kings continued the tradition of minting bilingual coinage in India. Paradoxically, they were not as bold as earlier kings such as Agathocles or Pantaleon is showing Indian divinities. They all continued to struck bilingual coins, sometimes in addition to Attic coinage, but Greek deities remained prevalent. Indian animals however, such as the elephant, the bull or the lion, possibly with religious overtones, were used extensively in their Indian-standard square coinage. Buddhist wheels (Dharmachakras) appear in the coinage of Menander I and Menander II.[29][30]
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Famous Indian-standard coinage of Menander I with wheel design.
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Coin of Antialcidas (105–95 BC), with elephant accompanying Zeus
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Coin of Menander II (90–85 BCE), with seated Zeus and Nike on his arm, extending a victory wreath over a wheel symbol
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Coin of Strato II (25 BCE-10 CE), one of the last Indo-Greek kings.
Architecture
Besides the amin city of Sirkap, founded by Demetrius I, an expeditions in the 1980s and 90s discovered an Indo-Greek town in Barikot from around the time of King Menander I in the 2nd century BCE. The 2nd century BCE town covered, at its peak, an area of about 10 ha (25 acres) including the acropolis, or about 7 ha (17 acres) without. It was surrounded by a defensive wall about 2.7 meters thick with massive rectangular bastions and a moat, and was structurally similar to other Hellenistic fortified cities such as Ai-Khanoum or Sirkap.[38][39] Indo-Greek coins were found, especially in the layers associated with the wall's construction, as well as potsherds with Greek letters.[38]
The Indo-Greeks are also known for their involvement in the construction of a few architectural elements. In 115 BC, that the embassy of
A coin of Menander I was found in the second oldest stratum (GSt 2) of the
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Ruins of the city of Barikot
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Ruins of the Indo-Greek city of Barikot
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TheButkara stupaas expanded during the reign of Menander I.
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Detail of theHeliodorus.[43]
Indo-Greek artefacts in India
Few artefacts are known with certainty to belong to the Indo-Greeks. The Shinkot casket, a Buddhist relic casket was dedicated during the reign of Menander I, bearing his name in an inscription.[44]
Stone palettes (circa 100 BCE)
Intaglio gems
Intaglio gems from northwest India, showing an evolution from Greek workmanship to more degraded forms, range from circa 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE.[48]
Inscriptions and sculptures
Some inscriptions remain mentioning Indo-Greek rule, such as the
Excavation at
Such Hellenistic draped figurines have not been found at Taxila or Charsadda, although they are known to have been Greek cities, but probably this is mainly because excavations to Greek levels have been very limited: in Sirkap, only one eight of the excavations were made down to the Indo-Greek and early Saka levels, and only in an area far removed from the center of the ancient city, where few finds could be expected.[57]
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Terracotta statuette in Chiton and Himation, Semthan, Southern Kashmir
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Male Hellenistic dress, Semthan
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Semthan, female Hellenistic dresses
Buddhist reliquaries
According to Harry Falk Buddhist stone reliquaries, which were generally place insided stupas with precious relics of the Buddha or other saints, are directly derived from the stone pyxis which have been excavated at Ai-Khanoum and originated in the west.[58] The Ai-Khanoum stone containers are thought to have played a religious role, and were apparently used to burn incense.[58] The shapes, material, and decoration are very similar to the later Buddhist containers, down to the compartmentalization inside the containers themselves.[58] One such containers the Shinkot casket, is a Buddhist relics container which was engraved with the name of the Indo-Greek king Menander I.[44][60]
The Bimaran reliquary, with one of the earliest known images of the Buddha, is generally dated to a period corresponding the end of Indo-Greek rule circa 1-15 CE, but was actually deposited by one of the
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The Shinkot casket, a Buddhist relics container in the name of Menander I
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AnMathura art, c. 1st century BCE.[63]
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TheBimaran reliquaryis often dated to circa 1-15 CE, at the time of the last Indo-Greek kings.
Architecture and statuary under the Indo-Greeks in Mathura (180-70 BCE)
Architecture
From time of the
Stone statuary
150-100 BCE
Following the demise of the Mauryan Empire and its replacement by the
Stone art and architecture began being produced at Mathura at the time of "Indo-Greek hegemony" over the region.
"Mathura sculpture is distinguished by several qualitative features of art, culture and religious history. The geographical position of the city on the highway leading from the Madhyadesa towards Madra-Gandhara contributed in a large measure to the eclectic nature of its culture. Mathura became the meeting ground of the traditions of the early Indian art of Bharhut and Sanchi together with strong influences of the Iranian and the Indo-Bactrian or the Gandhara art from the North-West. The Persepolitan capitals with human-headed animal figures and volutes as well as the presence of the battlement motif as a decorative element point to Iranian affinities. These influences came partly as a result of the general saturation of foreign motifs in early Indian sculpture as found in the Stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi also."
— Vasudeva Shrarana Agrawala, Masterpieces of Mathura sculpture[76]
The art of Mathura became extremely influential over the rest of India, and was "the most prominent artistic production center from the second century BCE".[50]
Colossal anthropomorphic statues (2nd century BCE)
In the 2nd century BCE, Yakshas became the focus of the creation of colossal cultic images, typically around 2 meters or more in height, which are considered as probably the first Indian anthropomorphic productions in stone.
Some
In the production of colossal Yaksha statues carved in the round, which can be found in several locations in northern India, the art of Mathura is considered as the most advanced in quality and quantity during this period.[82] Colossal Nāga statues are also known from this period in Mathura, also denoting an early cult of this deity.[83]
Incipient Greco-Buddhist art
The possibility of a direct connection between the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art has been reaffirmed recently as the dating of the rule of Indo-Greek kings has been extended to the first decades of the 1st century CE, with the reign of Strato II in the Punjab.[84] Also, Foucher, Tarn and more recently Boardman, Bussagli or McEvilley have taken the view that some of the most purely Hellenistic works of northwestern India, Pakistan and Afghanistan, may actually be wrongly attributed to later centuries, and instead belong to a period one or two centuries earlier, to the time of the Indo-Greeks in the 2nd-1st century BCE:[85]
This is particularly the case of some purely Hellenistic works in
Alternatively, it has been suggested that these works of art may have been executed by itinerant Greek artists during the time of maritime contacts with the West from the 1st to the 3rd century CE.[88]
The supposition that such highly Hellenistic and, at the same time Buddhist, works of art belong to the Indo-Greek period would be consistent with the known Buddhist activity of the Indo-Greeks (the Milinda Panha etc...), their Hellenistic cultural heritage which would naturally have induced them to produce extensive statuary, their know artistic proficiency as seen on their coins until around 50 BCE, and the dated appearance of already complex iconography incorporating Hellenistic sculptural codes with the Bimaran casket in the early 1st century CE.[citation needed]
Greek-looking people in the art of Gandhara
The
Uncertainties in dating make it unclear whether these works of art actually depict Greeks of the period of Indo-Greek rule up to the 1st century BCE, or remaining Greek communities under the rule of the
Hellenistic groups
A series of reliefs, several of them known as the
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Hellenistic drinking scene.
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Hellenistic marine deities, Gandhara, 1st century.
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Hellenistic drinking scene, Sar Khi Derri.
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The Trojan Horse.
Bacchic scenes
Greeks harvesting grapes, Greeks drinking and revelling, scenes of erotical courtship are also numerous, and seem to relate to some of the most remarkable traits of Greek culture.[94] These reliefs also belong to Buddhist structures, and it is sometimes suggested that they might represent some kind of paradisical world after death.
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Bacchanalian scene, representing the harvest of wine grapes, Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 1st-2nd century CE.
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Indo-Greek bacchanalian scene, 1st-2nd century.
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Satyr on a mountain goat, drinking with women. Gandhara, 2nd-4th century.
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Musician wearing thechitondress.
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Bacchanalian scene, Gandhara.
Hellenistic devotees
Depictions of people in Hellenistic dress within a Buddhist context are also numerous.
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Couple of devotees in Hellenistic himation dress, at the base of a Buddha statue.
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Devotee in Greek dress, on a Buddhist pilaster. Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa.
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"The Great Departure", with the Buddha amid Greek deities and costumes.
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Hellenistic man or God, Gandhara.
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fibula. Dated to the 1st century BCE. Butkara Stupa.
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Aristocratic women, Gandhara.
Contributions by "Yavanas" in the 1st-2nd centuries CE
After formal Greek political power waned circa 10 CE, some Greek nuclei may have continued to survive until the 2nd century AD.[97]
Tapa Shotor
According to archaeologist
Buddhist caves
A large number of
Karla Caves
Yavanas from the region of Nashik are mentioned as donors for six structural pillars in the Great Buddhist Chaitya of the Karla Caves built and dedicated by Western Satraps ruler Nahapana in 120 CE,[101] although they seem to have adopted Buddhist names.[102] In total, the Yavanas account for nearly half of the known dedicatory inscriptions on the pillars of the Great Chaitya.[103] To this day, Nasik is known as the wine capital of India, using grapes that were probably originally imported by the Greeks.[104]
Shivneri Caves
Two more Buddhist inscriptions by Yavanas were found in the
Pandavleni Caves
One of the Buddhist caves (Cave No.17) in the
Manmodi Caves
In the
"yavanasa camdānam gabhadā[ra]"
"The meritorious gift of the
These contributions seem to have ended when the
...Siri-
Satavahanafamily...
See also
- Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
- Seleucid Empire
- Greco-Buddhism
- Indo-Scythian art
- Indo-Parthian Kingdom
- Kushan art
- Roman commerce
- Timeline of Indo-Greek Kingdoms
Notes
- ^ ISBN 9004086129.
- ^ ISBN 9780520242258.
- ^ "The extraordinary realism of their portraiture. The portraits of Demetrius, Antimachus and of Eucratides are among the most remarkable that have come down to us from antiquity" Hellenism in ancient India, Banerjee, p134
- Gallo-Roman art, the Indo-Scythian Kanishka had no direct influence on that of Indo-Greek Art; and besides, we have now the certain proofs that during his reign this art was already stereotyped, if not decadent" Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, p147
- ISBN 9780951839911.
- ISBN 9788186030486.
- ISBN 9780691036809.
- ISBN 9782503524290.
- ^ ISBN 9788131716779.
- ISBN 9780520920095.
- ISBN 9781610690201.
- ISBN 9780520953567.
- ISBN 9782952137614.
- ISBN 9780521200929.
- ISBN 9781780760605.
- ^ ISBN 9788131716779.
- ISBN 9781588392244.
- ^ "It has all the hallmarks of a Hellenistic city, with a Greek theatre, gymnasium and some Greek houses with colonnaded courtyards" (Boardman).
- ^ ISBN 9788131716779.
- ^ ISBN 9780520920095.
- .
- ^ Source, BBC News, Another article. German story with photographs here (translation here).
- ^ Demetrius is said to have founded Taxila (archaeological excavations), and also Sagala in the modern-day Pakistan, which he seemed to have called Euthydemia, after his father ("the city of Sagala, also called Euthydemia" (Ptolemy, Geographia, VII 1))
- ^ A Journey Through India's Past Chandra Mauli Mani, Northern Book Centre, 2005, p. 39
- ^ MacDowall, 2004
- ^ "The only thing that seems reasonably sure is that Taxila was part of the domain of Agathocles", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p. 59
- ISBN 9788121505659.
- ^ a b Iconography of Balarāma, Nilakanth Purushottam Joshi, Abhinav Publications, 1979, p. 22 [1]
- ^ ISBN 9781452266626.
- ^ ISBN 9788182201156.
- ^ "Afghanistan, tresors retrouves", p150
- ^ Joe Cribb, Investigating the introduction of coinage in India, Journal of the Numismatic Society of India xlv Varanasi 1983 pp.89
- ^ Ghosh, Amalananda (1965). Taxila. CUP Archive. p. 763.
- ISBN 9780198132288.
- Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Retrieved 7 August 2015.
Menander, also spelled Minedra or Menadra, Pali Milinda (flourished 160 BCE?–135 BCE?), the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings and the one best known to Western and Indian classical authors. He is believed to have been a patron of the Buddhist religion and the subject of an important Buddhist work, the Milinda-panha ("The Questions of Milinda"). Menander was born in the Caucasus, but the Greek biographer Plutarch calls him a king of Bactria, and the Greek geographer and historian Strabo includes him among the Bactrian Greeks "who conquered more tribes than Alexander [the Great]."
- ^ Osmund Bopearachchi, 2016, Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence
- ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0.
- ^ ISBN 9789004154513.
- ^ Khaliq, Fazal (24 May 2015). "Swat's archaeological sites: a victim of neglect". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 2017-09-13.
- ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999 p. 170
- ^ Handbuch der Orientalistik, Kurt A. Behrendt, BRILL, 2004, p.49 sig
- ^ "King Menander, who built the penultimate layer of the Butkara stupa in the first century BCE, was an Indo-Greek." Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River, Alice Albinia, 2012
- ISBN 9781317236733.
- ^ a b Baums, Stefan (2017). A framework for Gandharan chronology based on relic inscriptions, in "Problems of Chronology in Gandharan Art". Archaeopress.
- ^ Marshall, John (1951). Taxila vol.III. p. Plaque 144.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-24832-8.
- ISBN 978-90-04-24832-8.
- ^ Rapson, Edward James (1922). The Cambridge history of India. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, BRILL, 2007 pp. 254-255
- ^ ISBN 9780691185385.
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ ISBN 0691036802.
- JSTOR 41694416.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-24832-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-24832-8.
- JSTOR 41928559.
- ISBN 978-90-04-24832-8.
- ^ a b c d Falk, Harry (2015). Buddhistische Reliquienbehälter aus der Sammlung Gritli von Mitterwallner. pp. 134–135.
- ISBN 978-2-503-51681-3.
- ^ Chakravarti, N. P (1937). Epigraphia Indica Vol.24. pp. 1–10.
- ^ Fussman, 1986, p.71, quoted in The Crossroads of Asia, p.192
- ^ The Cambridge History of India. CUP Archive. 1922. pp. 646–647.
- ISBN 9789004155374.
- JSTOR 24049089.
- ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ISBN 9789004155374.
- ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4.
- ^ Published in "L'Indo-Grec Menandre ou Paul Demieville revisite," Journal Asiatique 281 (1993) p.113
- ^ "Some Newly Discovered Inscriptions from Mathura : The Meghera Well Stone Inscription of Yavanarajya Year 160 Recently a stone inscription was acquired in the Government Museum, Mathura." India's ancient past, Shankar Goyal Book Enclave, 2004, p.189
- ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4.
- ^ Agrawala, Vasudeva S. (1965). Masterpieces of Mathura sculpture. p. 3.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
- ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
- ^ "yaksha". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 July 2007.
- ISBN 978-81-246-0015-3.
- ^ "The folk art typifies an older plastic tradition in clay and wood which was now put in stone, as seen in the massive Yaksha statuary which are also of exceptional value as models of subsequent divine images and human figures." in Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana (1965). Indian Art: A history of Indian art from the earliest times up to the third century A. D. Prithivi Prakashan. p. 84.
- ISBN 9789004155374.
- ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ "The survival into the 1st century AD of a Greek administration and presumably some elements of Greek culture in the Punjab has now to be taken into account in any discussion of the role of Greek influence in the development of Gandharan sculpture", The Crossroads of Asia, p. 14
- ^ On the Indo-Greeks and the Gandhara school:
- 1) "It is necessary to considerably push back the start of Gandharan art, to the first half of the first century BCE, or even, very probably, to the preceding century.(...) The origins of Gandharan art... go back to the Greek presence. (...) Gandharan iconography was already fully formed before, or at least at the very beginning of our era" Mario Bussagli "L'art du Gandhara", p331–332
- 2) "The beginnings of the Gandhara school have been dated everywhere from the first century B.C. (which was M. Foucher's view) to the Kushan period and even after it" (Tarn, p394). Foucher's views can be found in "La vieille route de l'Inde, de Bactres a Taxila", pp340–341). The view is also supported by Sir John Marshall ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", pp5–6).
- 3) Also the recent discoveries at Ai-Khanoum confirm that "Gandharan art descended directly from Hellenized Bactrian art" (Chaibi Nustamandy, "Crossroads of Asia", 1992).
- 4) On the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art: "It was about this time (100 BCE) that something took place which is without parallel in Hellenistic history: Greeks of themselves placed their artistic skill at the service of a foreign religion, and created for it a new form of expression in art" (Tarn, p393). "We have to look for the beginnings of Gandharan Buddhist art in the residual Indo-Greek tradition, and in the early Buddhist stone sculpture to the South (Bharhut etc.)" (Boardman, 1993, p124). "Depending on how the dates are worked out, the spread of Gandhari Buddhism to the north may have been stimulated by Menander's royal patronage, as may the development and spread of the Gandharan sculpture, which seems to have accompanied it" McEvilley, 2002, "The shape of ancient thought", p378.
- ^ Boardman, p141
- ^ Boardman, p143
- ^ "Others, dating the work to the first two centuries A.D., after the waning of Greek autonomy on the Northwest, connect it instead with the Roman Imperial trade, which was just then getting a foothold at sites like Barbaricum (modern Karachi) at the Indus-mouth. It has been proposed that one of the embassies from Indian kings to Roman emperors may have brought back a master sculptorto oversee work in the emerging Mahayana Buddhist sensibility (in which the Buddha came to be seen as a kind of deity), and that "bands of foreign workmen from the eastern centers of the Roman Empire" were brought to India" (Mc Evilley "The shape of ancient thought", quoting Benjamin Rowland "The art and architecture of India" p121 and A.C. Soper "The Roman Style in Gandhara" American Journal of Archaeology 55 (1951) pp301–319)
- ^ Boardman, p.115
- ^ McEvilley, p.388-390
- ^ Boardman, 109-153
- ^ Boardman, p.126
- ^ Marshall, "The Buddhist art of Gandhara", p.36
- ^ "At the time, a favourite theme of Graeco-Parthian secular art was the drinking scene, and incongruous as it may seem, this was one of the earliest themes to be adopted for the decoration of Buddhist stupas." Marshall, p.33
- ^ Marshall, p.33-39
- ^ a b Tarzi, Zémaryalai (2001). "Le site ruiné de Hadda". Afghanistan, patrimoine en péril: actes d'une journée d'étude. CEREDAF. p. 63 – via HAL open science.
- S2CID 163916645.
- ISBN 9788186030486.
- ^ Buddhist architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, pp. 98–99
- ^ Epigraphia Indica Vol.18 p. 328 Inscription No10
- ^ World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 ʻAlī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, 2008 p. 42
- ^ * Inscription no.7: "(This) pillar (is) the gift of the Yavana Sihadhaya from Dhenukataka" in Problems of Ancient Indian History: New Perspectives and Perceptions, Shankar Goyal - 2001, p. 104
* Inscription no.4: "(This) pillar (is) the gift of the Yavana Dhammadhya from Dhenukataka"
Description in Hellenism in Ancient India by Gauranga Nath Banerjee p. 20 - ^ Epigraphia Indica Vol.18 pp. 326–328 and Epigraphia Indica Vol.7 [Epigraphia Indica Vol.7 pp. 53–54
- ISBN 9781442268043.
- ^ a b The Greek-Indians of Western India: A Study of the Yavana and Yonaka Buddhist Cave Temple Inscriptions, 'The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies', NS 1 (1999-2000) S._1_1999-2000_pp._83-109 p. 87–88
- ^ a b Epigraphia Indica p. 90ff
- ^ Hellenism in Ancient India, Gauranga Nath Banerjee p. 20
- ^ The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India, Raoul McLaughlin, Pen and Sword, 2014 p. 170
- ISBN 9789004255302.
- ^ Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. The Society. 1994. pp. iv.
- ^ Archaeological Survey of Western India. Government Central Press. 1879. pp. 43–44.
- ^ Karttunen, Klaus (2015). "Yonas and Yavanas In Indian Literature". Studia Orientalia. 116: 214.
- ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0. p. 383
- ^ Nasik cave inscription No 1. "( Of him) the Kshatriya , who flaming like the god of love, subdued the Sakas, Yavavas and Palhavas" in Parsis of ancient India by Hodivala, Shapurji Kavasji p. 16
- ^ Epigraphia Indica pp. 61–62
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