Mulberry harbour
Mulberry harbour | |
---|---|
Arromanches and Omaha Beach, Normandy, France | |
Coordinates | 49°20′51″N 0°38′02″W / 49.3475°N 0.6340°W |
Details | |
Opened | June 1944 |
Closed | March 1945 |
Type | Temporary portable harbour |
Purpose | Military equipment, stores and personnel |
Joins | Beach |
Mulberry harbours were two temporary portable
The Mulberry harbours solved the problem of needing deep water jetties and a harbour to provide the invasion force with the necessary reinforcements and supplies, and were to be used until major French ports could be captured and brought back into use after repair of the inevitable sabotage by German defenders. Comprising floating but sinkable breakwaters, floating pontoons, piers and floating roadways, this innovative and technically difficult system was being used for the first time.
The Mulberry B harbour at Gold Beach was used for 10 months after D-Day, and over 2.5 million men, 500,000 vehicles, and 4 million tons of supplies were landed before it was fully decommissioned. The still only partially-completed Mulberry A harbour at Omaha Beach was damaged on 19 June by a violent storm that arrived from the north-east before the pontoons were securely anchored. After three days the storm finally abated and damage was found to be so severe that the harbour had to be abandoned and the Americans had to resort to landing men and material over the open beaches.
Background
The Dieppe Raid of 1942 had shown that the Allies could not rely on being able to penetrate the Atlantic Wall to capture a port on the north French coast. The problem was that large ocean-going ships of the type needed to transport heavy and bulky cargoes and stores needed sufficient depth of water under their keels, together with dockside cranes, to off-load their cargo, and these were not available, except at the already heavily defended French harbours. Thus, the Mulberries were created to provide the port facilities necessary to offload the thousands of men and vehicles, and millions of tons of supplies necessary to sustain Operation Overlord. The harbours were made up of all the elements one would expect of any harbour: breakwater, piers and roadways.
Preparation
With the planning of Operation Overlord at an advanced stage by the summer of 1943, it was accepted that the proposed artificial harbours would need to be prefabricated in Britain and then towed across the English Channel.
The need for two separate artificial harbours – one American and one British/Canadian – was agreed at the
On 2 September 1943 the
The proposed harbours called for many huge
Beach surveys
Both locations for the temporary harbours required detailed information concerning geology, hydrography and sea conditions. To collect this data a special team of hydrographers was created in October 1943. The 712th Survey Flotilla, operating from naval base HMS Tormentor in Hamble, were detailed to collect soundings off the enemy coast. Between November 1943 and January 1944 this team used a number of specially adapted Landing Craft Personnel (Large), or LCP(L), to survey the Normandy coast.
The LCP(L)s were manned by a Royal Navy crew and a small group of hydrographers. The first sortie, Operation KJF, occurred on the night of 26/27 November 1943 when three LCP(L)s took measurements off the port of Arromanches, the location for Mulberry B. A follow-up mission, Operation KJG, to the proposed location for Mulberry A happened on 1/2 December but a navigation failure meant the team sounded an area 2,250 yards west of the correct area.
Two attempts had to be made to take soundings off Pointe de Ver. The first sortie, Operation Bellpush Able, on 25/26 December had problems with their equipment. They returned on 28/29 December, in Operation Bellpush Baker, to complete the task.
(On New Year's Eve 1943, the 712th Survey Flotilla carried a Combined Operations Pilotage Party (COPP) to the Gold Beach area just west of Ver-sur-Mer. Two soldiers – Major Logan Scott-Bowden, of the Royal Engineers, and commando Sergeant Bruce Ogden Smith, of the East Surrey Regiment – landed on the beach at night in Operation KJH and took samples of the sand. However, this operation was to check the load-bearing capabilities of sand and help determine whether armoured vehicles would be able to cross the beach or become bogged down, rather than being in connection with the Mulberry harbours.)
The final Mulberry harbour survey, Operation Bellpush Charlie, occurred on the night of 30–31 January but limited information was gathered due to fog and because German lookouts heard the craft. Further sorties were abandoned.[5]
Design and development
An early idea for temporary harbours was sketched by
In 1940 the civil engineer Guy Maunsell wrote to the War Office with a proposal for an artificial harbour, but the idea was not at first adopted.[6] Churchill issued his memo "Piers for use on beaches" on 30 May 1942, apparently in some frustration at the lack of progress being made on finding a solution to the temporary harbour problem.[7] Between 17 June and 6 August 1942, Hugh Iorys Hughes submitted a design concept for artificial harbours to the War Office.[8]
At a meeting following the
In the autumn of 1942, the Chief of Combined Operations Vice-Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, outlined the requirement for piers at least one mile (1.6 km) long at which a continuous stream of supplies could be handled, including a pier head capable of handling 2,000-ton ships.
In July 1943 a committee of eminent civil engineers consisting of Colin R White (chairman), J D C Couper, J A Cochrane, R D Gwyther and Lt. Col. Ivor Bell was established to advise on how a number of selected sites on the French coastline could be converted into sheltered harbours. The committee initially investigated the use of compressed air breakwaters before eventually deciding on blockships and caissons.[9]
Trials
In August and September 1943 a trial of three competing designs for the cargo-handling jetties was set up together with a test of a compressed air breakwater. The pier designs were by:
- Hugh Iorys Hughes (a civil engineer) who developed his "Hippo" piers and "Crocodile" bridge spans;
- Ronald Hamilton (working at the Department of Miscellaneous Weapons Development) who devised the "Swiss Roll" which consisted of a floating roadway made of waterproofed canvas stiffened with slats and tensioned by cables;
- Lieutenant Colonel William T Everall and Major Allan Beckett (of the War Office's 'Transportation 5 Department' (Tn5)) who designed a floating bridge linked to a pier head (the latter had integral 'spud' legs that were raised and lowered with the tide).
The western side of
Harbour elements and code names
Below are listed brief details of the major elements of the harbours together with their associated military code names.
Mulberry
Mulberry was the codename for all the various different structures that would create the artificial harbours. These were the "Gooseberries" which metamorphosed into fully fledged harbours. There were two harbours, Mulberry "A" and Mulberry "B". The "Mulberry" harbours consisted of a floating outer breakwater called "
Mulberry "A"
The Mulberry harbour assembled on Omaha Beach at Saint-Laurent-sur-Mer was for use by the American invasion forces. Mulberry "A" (American) was not as securely anchored to the sea bed as Mulberry "B" had been by the British, resulting in such severe damage during the Channel storm of June 19, 1944 that it was considered to be irreparable and its further assembly ceased,[12] It was commanded by Augustus Dayton Clark.
Mulberry "B" ("Port Winston")
Mulberry "B" (British) was the harbour assembled on Gold Beach at Arromanches for use by the British and Canadian invasion forces. The harbour was decommissioned six months after D-Day as Allied forces were able to use the recently captured port of Antwerp to offload troops and supplies. Mulberry 'B' was operated by 20 Port Group, Royal Engineers under the command of Lt. Col. G C B Shaddick.
Breakwaters
Corncobs and Gooseberries (breakwater ships)
Corncobs were ships that crossed the English Channel (either under their own steam or towed) and were then scuttled to act as breakwaters and create sheltered water at the five landing beaches. Once in position the Corncobs created the sheltered waters known as Gooseberries.
The ships used for each beach were:
- Utah Beach (Gooseberry 1): Benjamin Contee, David O. Saylor, George S. Wasson, Matt W. Ransom,[13] West Cheswald, West Honaker, West Nohno, Willis A. Slater, Victory Sword and Vitruvius.
- Omaha Beach (Gooseberry 2): Artemas Ward,[13] Audacious, Baialoide, HMS Centurion, Courageous, Flight-Command, Galveston, George W. Childs, James W. Marshall, James Iredell[13] Illinoian,[14][15] Olambala, Potter, West Grama and Wilscox.
- Gold Beach (Gooseberry 3): Alynbank, Alghios Spyridon, Elswick Park, Flowergate, Giorgios P., Ingman, Innerton, Lynghaug, Modlin, Njegos, Parkhaven, Parklaan, Saltersgate, Sirehei, Vinlake and Winha.
- Juno Beach (Gooseberry 4): Belgique, Bendoran, Empire Bunting, Empire Flamingo, Empire Moorhen, Empire Waterhen, Formigny, Manchester Spinner, Mariposa, Panos and Vera Radcliffe.
- Sword Beach (Gooseberry 5): Becheville, French battleship Courbet, Dover Hill, HMS Durban, Empire Defiance, Empire Tamar, Empire Tana, Forbin and HNLMS Sumatra.
Phoenix caissons
Phoenixes were reinforced concrete caissons constructed by civil engineering contractors around the coast of Britain, collected and sunk at Dungeness in Kent and Pagham in West Sussex prior to D-Day. There were six different sizes of caisson (with displacements of approximately 2,000 tons to 6,000 tons each[16]) and each unit was towed to Normandy by two tugs at around three knots. The caissons were initially sunk awaiting D-Day and then engineers refloated ("resurrected", hence the name) the Phoenixes. US Navy Captain (later Rear Admiral) Edward Ellsberg, already well known for quickly refloating scuttled ships at Massawa and Oran, was brought in to accomplish the task, though not without obtaining Churchill's intervention in taking the task away from the Royal Engineers and giving it to the Royal Navy. The Phoenixes, once refloated, were towed across the channel to form the "Mulberry" harbour breakwaters together with the "Gooseberry" block ships. Ellsberg rode one of the concrete caissons to Normandy; once there he helped unsnarl wrecked landing craft and vehicles on the beach.
Bombardons
The Bombardons were large 200 ft (61 m) by 25 ft (7.6 m) plus-shaped floating breakwaters fabricated in steel and rubberized canvas that were anchored outside the main breakwaters that consisted of Gooseberries (scuttled ships) and Phoenixes (concrete caissons). 24 bombardon units, attached to one another with hemp ropes, would create a 1 mi (1.6 km) breakwater. During the storms at the end of June 1944 some Bombardons broke up and sank while others parted their anchors and drifted down onto the harbours, possibly causing more damage to the harbours than the storm itself. The design of the Bombardons was the responsibility of the Royal Navy while the Royal Engineers were responsible for the design of the rest of the Mulberry harbour equipment.
Roadways
Whales
The dock piers were code named Whales. These piers were the floating roadways that connected the "Spud" pier heads to the land. Designed by
Beetles
Beetles were pontoons that supported the Whale piers. They were moored in position using wires attached to "Kite" anchors which were also designed by Allan Beckett. These anchors had such high holding power that few could be recovered at the end of the war. The Navy was dismissive of Beckett's claims for his anchor's holding ability so Kite anchors were not used for mooring the bombardons. An original Kite anchor is displayed in a private museum at Vierville-sur-Mer while a full size replica forms part of a memorial to Beckett in Arromanches. In October 2018 five Kite anchors were recovered from the bed of the Solent off Woodside Beach, which had been an assembly area for Whale tows prior to D Day. The anchors were taken to Mary Rose Archaeological Services in Portsmouth for conservation treatment.[19]
Spud piers
The pier heads or landing wharves at which ships were unloaded were codenamed Spuds. Each of these consisted of a pontoon with four legs that rested on the sea bed to anchor the pontoon yet allow it to float up and down freely with the tide.
Deployment
On the afternoon of 6 June 1944 (D-Day) over 400 towed component parts (weighing approximately 1.5 million tons) set sail to create the two Mulberry harbours. It included all the blockships (codenamed Corncobs) to create the outer breakwater (Gooseberries) and 146 concrete caissons (Phoenixes).
Arromanches Mulberry
At
Omaha Mulberry
Arriving first on D-Day itself were the Bombardons followed a day later by the first blockship. The first Phoenix was sunk on 9 June and the Gooseberry was finished by 11 June. By 18 June two piers and four pier heads were working. Though this harbour was abandoned in late June (see below), the beach continued to be used for landing vehicles and stores using
Storm of 19 June 1944
Both harbours were almost fully functional when on 19 June a large north-east storm at Force 6 to 8 blew into Normandy and devastated the Mulberry harbour at Omaha Beach. The harbours had been designed with summer weather conditions in mind, but this was the worst storm to hit the Normandy coast in 40 years.
The destruction at Omaha was so bad that the entire harbour was deemed irreparable. 21 of the 28 Phoenix caissons were completely destroyed, the Bombardons were cast adrift, and the roadways and piers smashed.
The Mulberry harbour at Arromanches was more protected, and although damaged by the storm, it remained usable. It came to be known as Port Winston. While the harbour at Omaha was destroyed sooner than expected, Port Winston saw heavy use for eight months, despite being designed to last only three months. In the 10 months after D-Day, it was used to land over 2.5 million men, 500,000 vehicles, and 4 million tons of supplies providing much needed reinforcements in France.
Deception
Post-war analysis
Post-war (particularly American) historians say that although it was a success, the vast resources used on the Mulberry may have been wasted, as the American forces were supplied mostly over the beaches without the use of a Mulberry right through to September 1944.[citation needed] By the end of 6 June, 20,000 troops and 1,700 vehicles had landed on Utah beach (the shortest beach). At Omaha and Utah, 6,614 tons of cargo was discharged in the first three days. A month after D-Day, Omaha and Utah were handling 9,200 tons, and after a further month, they were landing 16,000 tons per day. This increased until 56,200 tons of supplies, 20,000 vehicles, and 180,000 troops were discharged each day at those beaches. The Mulberry harbours provided less than half the total (on good weather days) to begin with.[24] The Normandy beaches supplied the following average daily tonnage of supplies:
Beach/Port | D+30 | D+60 |
---|---|---|
Mulberry | 6,750 | 6,750 |
Omaha | 1,200 | 10,000 |
Isigny | 500 | 1,300 |
Grandcamp | 500 | 900 |
Utah | 8,000 | 6,000 |
total beaches | 9,200 | 16,000 |
By the end of June, over 289,827 tons of supplies had been offloaded onto the Normandy beaches. Up to September, U.S. forces were supported largely across the beaches, primarily without the use of the Mulberry. "However, in the critical early stage of the operation, had the Allied assault ships been caught in the open without the benefit of any protection, the damage in the American sector especially could have been catastrophic to the lines of supply and communication."[26]
Mulberry B was substantially reinforced with units salvaged from the American harbor and that the Phoenixes were pumped full of sand to give them greater stability, measures that undoubtedly explain the extended service which the British port was able to render. Furthermore, the planners obviously underrated the capacities of open beaches. The tremendous tonnage capacities subsequently developed at both Utah and Omaha were without doubt one of the most significant and gratifying features of the entire Overlord operation.[27]
Surviving remnants in the UK
Sections of Phoenix caissons are located at:
- Thorpe Bay, Southend-on-Sea – while being towed from Immingham to Southsea, the caisson began to leak and was intentionally beached on a sandbank in the Thames Estuary. It was designated as a scheduled monument in 2004. It is accessible at low tide.[28][29]
- Pagham, West Sussex – known as the Far Mulberry, it sank off the coast, settled and cracked and is now lying at about 10 m (33 ft) underwater.[30] The remains were scheduled in two sections in 2019.[31][32]
- Littlestone-on-Sea, Kent – caisson could not be refloated.[33] The site was scheduled in 2013.[34]
- Langstone Harbour, Hayling Island – faulty caisson left in-situ at place of construction.[35]
- Littlehampton - caissons about 5 metres underwater and dived by novice divers.
- Portland, Dorset – two are located at the beach at Castletown. They were designated as a Grade II listed building in 1993.[36]
Beetles are located at:
- Bognor Regis, on the shore line West of Marine Drive, Aldwick, where it washed up a few days after D-Day. Easily accessible at low tide[37]
- Garlieston, Wigtownshire - concrete beetle remains are accessible on foot on the north side of Garlieston Bay (Eggerness)[38] and at Cairn Head on the south side of Portyerrock Bay on the road to Isle of Whithorn.[39]
- Old House Point, Cairnryan, Dumfries and Galloway, 3 beetles at the shore line.[40]
Other artefacts around Garlieston include:
- a conspicuous stone wall at the back of Rigg Bay beach: this was the landward terminal for a "Crocodile" link to a "Hippo"[41]
- the remains of a collapsed "Hippo" visible at low tide in Rigg Bay[42]
- a number of abandoned brick buildings, once the camp at Cairn Head[43]
- some lengths of concrete roadway on the beach at Cairn Head, intended for use with "Swiss Roll".[44]
At Southampton, Town Quay, a short section of 'Whale' roadway and a buffer pontoon, now derelict, used after the war for Isle of Wight ferries, survive between the Royal Pier and the Town Quay car ferry terminal.[45]
German equivalent of Mulberry
In the period between postponement and cancellation of Operation Sea Lion, the invasion of the United Kingdom, Germany developed some prototype prefabricated jetties with a similar purpose in mind. These could be seen in Alderney, until they were demolished in 1978.[46]
Daily Telegraph crosswords
"Mulberry" and the names of all the beaches were words appearing in the
See also
- Operation Pluto
- Lily: a floating airstrip using components developed for the Mulberry harbour.
Notes
- ^ Murchie 1993, p. 4
- ^ "War Office: Artificial Harbours" (PDF). Retrieved 13 September 2015.
- ^ Hartcup 2011, p. 94.
- ^ "Mulberry Harbour: British, French and Dutch tugs'". Thames Tugs. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
- ^ Falconer 2013, pp. 69–71.
- ^ "Engineering Timelines - Guy Maunsell - WWII : sea forts + harbours". www.engineering-timelines.com. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
- ^ "A User Requirement Document - Piers for Use on Beaches". Think Defence. 5 February 2015. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
- ^ "Hughes War Plans - Mulberry Harbours". Kaller Historical Documents. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
- ^ "Artificioal Harbours" (PDF). War Office. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
- ^ Murchie (1993) pp 13-20
- ^ Crawford 1944, p. 1.
- ^ "Omaha Beach Mulberry Harbor". Centre for Coastal and Ocean Mapping. 9 May 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
- ^ a b c Morton & Jones 2005, p. 111.
- ^ Maritime Administration. "Illinoian". Ship History Database Vessel Status Card. U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
- ^ "Gooseberry 2 (Omaha Beach)". Encyclopédie du débarquement et de la Bataille de Normandie. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
- ^ "Caisson (Phoenix) Breakwater". worldwar2heritage.com. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
- ^ "Some Aspects of the Design of Flexible Bridging Including 'Whale' Floating Roadways - A H Beckett" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 July 2011.
- ^ "The World of Motoring". The Motor. London: Temple Press Ltd: 496. 24 October 1962.
- ^ "World war 2 Kite anchors found and recovered". 16 November 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2019.
- ^ Tactical Employment of Antiaircraft Units Including the Defense Against Pilotless Aircraft (V-1) (PDF) (Report). The General Board, United States Forces European Theater, Antiaircraft Artillery Section. 20 November 1945. Study No. 38. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
- ^ "Mulberry Harbours". normandiememoire.com. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
- ^ "The Mulberry Harbour". historylearningsite.co.uk. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
- ^ Hughes & Momber 2000, pp. 127–128.
- ^ Godfrey 2003, p. 44.
- ^ Osmanski 1950, p. 57.
- ^ Antill, Bradford Case & Moore 2011, p. 63.
- ^ Ruppenthal 1953, p. 415.
- ^ "Mulberry Harbour Phoenix Caisson, Thorpe Bay, Southend-on-Sea". worldwar2heritage.com. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
- ^ Historic England. "World War II caisson, West Knock sandbank, Shoeburyness (1021090)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
- ^ "Engineering feats that served our soldiers so well". Bognor Regis Observer. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
- ^ Historic England. "Phoenix Caisson (inner) off Pagham (1453065)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
- ^ Historic England. "Phoenix Caisson (outer) off Pagham Harbour (1452912)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
- ^ Sawer, Patrick (3 June 2014). "The concrete D-Day hulk that helped defeat Hitler". Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 5 June 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
- ^ Historic England. "Phoenix Caisson off Littlestone-on-Sea (1415588)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
- ^ "Mulberry Harbour construction site, Hayling Island".
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|url=
(help) - ^ Historic England. "Mulberry Harbour Phoenix Caissons at Portland Harbour (1203075)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
- ^ Donnelly, Luke (18 November 2022). "The incredible Sussex wrecks and ruins you only get to see at low tide". Sussex Live. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
- ^ National Record of the Historic Environment (Canmore): Mulberry: Garlieston Bay, Wigtown Bay, Solway Firth https://canmore.org.uk/site/311533/mulberry-garlieston-bay-wigtown-bay-solway-firth
- ^ National Record of the Historic Environment (Canmore): Mulberry Harbour 'beetle': Cairnhead Bay, Rigg Bay, Wigtown Bay, Solway Firth https://canmore.org.uk/site/287700/mulberry-harbour-beetle-cairnhead-bay-rigg-bay-wigtown-bay-solway-firth
- ISBN 0 9542966 3 X
- ^ Murchie (1993) p. 59
- ^ Murchie (1993) pp. 58-59
- ^ National Record of the Historic Environment (Canmore): Cairnhead, Mulberry Harbour Project Construction Yard https://canmore.org.uk/site/265635/cairnhead-mulberry-harbour-project-construction-yard
- ^ Murchie (1993) p. 31
- ^ Historic England. "'Whale' roadway section and buffer pontoon of the Second World War Mulberry Harbour (1448094)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
- ^ Bonnard 1993, pp. 106–108.
- ^ "D-Day crosswords are still a few clues short of a solution". The Daily Telegraph. 6 February 2009. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ^ "The Crossword Panic of 1944". Historic-UK.com. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
References
- Antill, Peter; Bradford Case, Jeffrey; Moore, David (2011). "Case 1.4, Operation Overlord: Supply Chain Innovation during World War II". In Moore, David (ed.). Case Studies in Defence Procurement and Logistics, Volume I. Cambridge: Cambridge Academic. OCLC 858069223.
- Bonnard, Brian (1993). Alderney at War: 1939-1949. Stroud: Alan Sutton. OCLC 799680591.
- Crawford, R. W., ed. (November 1944). Mulberry B D+4–D+147 10 June to 31 October 1944 (Report). SHAEF. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
- Falconer, Jonathan (2013). D-Day Manual: 'Neptune', 'Overlord' and the Battle of Normandy. Sparkford, Somerset: Haynes. OCLC 840187873.
- Godfrey, Frederick (November–December 2003). "The Logistics of Invasion" (PDF). Army Logistician. 35 (6): 44–49. ISSN 0004-2528. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
- Hartcup, Guy (2011). Code Name Mulberry: The Planning Building and Operation of the Normandy Harbours. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-84884-558-9.
- Horrall, Andrew (2019). "'This War has Produced a Woman Who Can Keep a Secret!': The Mulberry Harbour Exhibitions, the Young Woman and the Contested Meanings of a British Wartime Invention". War & Society. 38 (3): 185–202. S2CID 198034466.
- Hughes, Michael; Momber, Gary (2000). "The Mulberry Harbour Remains". In Allen, Michael J.; Gardiner, Julie (eds.). Our Changing Coast a survey of the intertidal archaeology of Langstone Harbour Hampshire. York: Council for British Archaeology. pp. 127–128. OCLC 49326461.
- Jackson, Zoe; Grey, Stephen; Adcock, Thomas A. A.; Taylor, Paul H.; Bidlot4, Jean-Raymond (2017). "The waves at the Mulberry Harbours". Journal of Ocean Engineering and Marine Energy. 3 (3): 285–292. ISSN 2198-6452.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link - OCLC 671874345.
- Morton, High M.; Jones, Wilbur D. (2005). The Journey Continues: The World War II Home Front. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Books. OCLC 751019759.
- Murchie, A. T. (1993). The Mulberry Harbour Project in Wigtownshire 1942-1944. Local History Series No 4. Wigtown, DG8 9HL: G.C. Book Publishers Ltd. ISBN 1-872350-62-3.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - Osmanski, F. A. (January 1950). "Logistical Planning of Operation Overlord". Military Review. 29 (10): 50–62. ISSN 0026-4148. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
- Ruppenthal, Roland G. (1953). Logistical Support of the Armies (PDF). United States Army in World War II – The European Theater of Operations. Vol. I, May 1945 – September 1944. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 640653201. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
- OCLC 987387246.
Further reading
- Evans, J.; Walter, T.; Palmer, E. (2000). A Harbour Goes to War: The Story of Mulberry and the Men Who Made It Happen. South Machars Historical Society. OCLC 59573968.
- Flint, Colin (2016). Geopolitical Constructs: Mulberry Harbours, World War Two, and the Making of a Militarized Trans-Atlantic. Boulder, Colorado: Rowman & Littlefield. OCLC 1023137454.
- Institution of Civil Engineers (1948). The Civil Engineer at War. Vol. II: Docks and Harbours. Institution of Civil Engineers. OCLC 903868063.
External links
- Beckett Rankine Mulberry Harbour Archive
- Garlieston's Secret War, Mulberry Harbour trials around Garlieston
- Mulberry Harbours at the Wayback Machine (archived May 8, 2013)
- Google Maps satellite view
- A wartime aerial view of part of the Mulberry Harbour at Arromanches
- Factory-Made Invasion Harbour (1944) on YouTube
- "Seabees in Normandy" video (U.S. National Archives)