Asana
An āsana (
The 10th or 11th century
Asanas were claimed to provide both spiritual and physical benefits in medieval hatha yoga texts. More recently, studies have provided evidence that they improve flexibility, strength, and balance; to reduce stress and conditions related to it; and specifically to alleviate some diseases such as asthma[3][4] and diabetes.[5]
Asanas have appeared in culture for many centuries. Religious
History
Ancient times
The central figure in the
Asanas originated in India. In his
The eight limbs are, in order, the
Asanas, along with the breathing exercises of pranayama, are the physical movements of hatha yoga and of modern yoga.[17][18] Patanjali describes asanas as a "steady and comfortable posture",[19] referring to the seated postures used for pranayama and for meditation, where meditation is the path to samadhi, transpersonal self-realization.[20][21]The Yoga Sutras do not mention a single asana by name, merely specifying the characteristics of a good asana:[22]
स्थिरसुखमासनम् ॥४६॥
sthira sukham āsanam
Asana means a steady and comfortable posture. Yoga Sutras 2:46
The Sutras are embedded in the Bhasya commentary, which scholars suggest may also be by Patanjali;
Medieval texts
The 10th–11th century
The
The
The pillars of the 16th century
By the 17th century, asanas became an important component of Hatha yoga practice, and more non-seated poses appear.
The
Modern pioneers
From the 1850s onwards, a culture of physical exercise developed in India to counter the colonial stereotype of supposed "degeneracy" of Indians compared to the British,
Singleton notes that poses close to
Yoga asanas were brought to America in 1919 by Yogendra, sometimes called "the Father of the Modern Yoga Renaissance", his system influenced by the physical culture of Max Müller.[50]
In 1924, Swami Kuvalayananda founded the Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Center in Maharashtra.[51] He combined asanas with Indian systems of exercise and modern European gymnastics, having according to the scholar Joseph Alter a "profound" effect on the evolution of yoga.[52]
In 1925, Paramahansa Yogananda, having moved from India to America, set up the Self-Realization Fellowship in Los Angeles, and taught yoga, including asanas, breathing, chanting and meditation, to tens of thousands of Americans, as described in his 1946 Autobiography of a Yogi.[53][54]
In 1960,
In 1966, Iyengar published Light on Yoga: Yoga Dipika, illustrated with some 600 photographs of Iyengar demonstrating around 200 asanas; it systematised the physical practice of asanas. It became a bestseller, selling three million copies, and was translated into some 17 languages.[62]
In 1984, Dharma Mittra compiled a list of about 1,300 asanas and their variations, derived from ancient and modern sources, illustrating them with photographs of himself in each posture; the Dharma Yoga website suggests that he created some 300 of these.[63][64][65]
Origins of the asanas
The asanas have been created at different times, a few being ancient, some being medieval, and a growing number recent.
In 1966, Iyengar's classic Light on Yoga was able to describe some 200 asanas,
Sjoman notes that the names of asanas have been used "promiscuous[ly]", in a tradition of "amalgamation and borrowing" over the centuries, making their history difficult to trace.[81] The presence of matching names is not proof of continuity, since the same name may mean a different pose, and a pose may have been known by multiple names at different times.[81] The estimates here are therefore based on actual descriptions of the asanas.
No. of asanas | Sanskrit | Transliteration | English | Author | Date | Evidence supplied |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2 | गोरक्ष शतक | Goraksha Shataka |
Goraksha's Century | Gorakshanatha | 10th-11th century | Describes Siddhasana, Padmasana;[82][83] 84 claimed[c] |
4 | शिव संहिता | Shiva Samhita | Shiva's Compendium | - | 15th century | 4 seated asanas described, 84 claimed; 11 mudras[84] |
15 | हठ योग प्रदीपिका | Hatha Yoga Pradipika | A Small Light on Hatha Yoga | Svami Svatmarama |
15th century | 15 asanas described, |
32 | घेरंड संहिता | Gheranda Samhita | Gheranda's Collection | Gheranda | 17th century | Descriptions of 32 seated, backbend, twist, balancing and inverted asanas, 25 mudras[36][84] |
52 | हठ रत्नावली | Hatha Ratnavali | A Treatise On Hatha Yoga | Srinivasa | 17th century | 52 asanas described, out of 84 named[h][34][35] |
84 | जोग प्रदीपिका | Joga Pradipika | A Small Light on Yoga | Ramanandi Jayatarama | 1830 | 84 asanas and 24 mudras in rare illustrated edition of 18th century text[85] |
37 | योग सोपान | Yoga Sopana |
Stairway to Yoga | Yogi Ghamande | 1905 | Describes and illustrates 37 asanas, 6 mudras, 5 bandhas[85] |
c. 200 | योग दीपिका | Yoga Dipika | Light on Yoga | B. K. S. Iyengar | 1966 | Descriptions and photographs of each asana[86] |
908 | — | — | Master Yoga Chart | Dharma Mittra | 1984 | Photographs of each asana[87] |
The graph shows the rapid growth in number of asanas in the 20th century.
Purposes
Spiritual
The asanas of hatha yoga originally had a spiritual purpose within
The yoga scholar and practitioner
Asanas work in different ways from conventional physical exercises, according to
Iyengar observed that the practice of asanas "brings steadiness, health, and lightness of limb. A steady and pleasant posture produces mental equilibrium and prevents fickleness of mind." He adds that they bring agility, balance, endurance, and "great vitality", developing the body to a "fine physique which is strong and elastic without being muscle-bound". But, Iyengar states, their real importance is the way they train the mind, "conquer[ing]" the body and making it "a fit vehicle for the spirit".[98]
Asana | Level |
---|---|
Salute to the Sun |
Gods |
Virabhadra, Matsyendra |
Heroes, sages |
Dog |
Mammals |
Pigeon |
Birds |
Cobra | Reptiles |
Fish, Frog |
Aquatic animals |
Locust | Invertebrates |
Tree |
Plants |
Mountain | Inanimate |
Iyengar saw it as significant that asanas are named after plants, insects, fish and amphibians, reptiles, birds, and quadrupeds; as well as "legendary heroes", sages, and
Sjoman argues that the concept of stretching in yoga can be looked at through one of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, 2.47, which says that [asanas are achieved] by loosening (śaithilya) the effort (prayatna) and meditating on the endless (ananta). Sjoman points out that this physical loosening is to do with the mind's letting go of restrictions, allowing the natural state of "unhindered perfect balance" to emerge; he notes that one can only relax through effort, "as only a muscle that is worked is able to relax (that is, there is a distinction between dormancy and relaxation)."[101] Thus asanas had a spiritual purpose, serving to explore the conscious and unconscious mind.[102]
Heinz Grill considers the soul in our human existence to be a central link between the manifest body and the unmanifest spirit. Therefore it should not be the sense-attached, bodily-involved consciousness that motivates yoga practice, but spiritual thoughts. According to Grill, this path from above to below is essential, because “the soul lives in the receptivity of giving and not in the receptivity of earthly taking.”[103] For the practice he has written a book called The Souldimension of Yoga, which has already been translated into many languages.
Exercise
Since the mid-20th century, asanas have been used, especially in the Western world, as physical exercise.[104] In this context, their "overtly Hindu" purpose is masked but its "ecstatic ... transcendent ... possibly subversive" elements remain.[105] That context has led to a division of opinion among Christians, some asserting that it is acceptable as long as they are aware of yoga's origins, others stating that hatha yoga's purpose is inherently Hindu, making Christian yoga an evident contradiction[106][107] or indeed "diametrically opposed to Christianity".[108] A similar debate has taken place in a Muslim context; under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, yoga, formerly banned as a Hindu practice, has been legalised,[109] while mainly-Hindu Bali has held a yoga competition in defiance of a ruling by Indonesia's Muslim Ulema Council.[110]
In a secular context, the journalists Nell Frizzell and Reni Eddo-Lodge have debated (in The Guardian) whether Western yoga classes represent "cultural appropriation". In Frizzell's view, yoga has become a new entity, a long way from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and while some practitioners are culturally insensitive, others treat it with more respect. Eddo-Lodge agrees that Western yoga is far from Patanjali, but argues that the changes cannot be undone, whether people use it "as a holier-than-thou tool, as a tactic to balance out excessive drug use, or practised similarly to its origins with the spirituality that comes with it".[111]
From a Hindu perspective, the practice of asanas in the Western world as physical exercise is sometimes seen as yoga that has lost its way. In 2012, the Hindu American Foundation ran a "Take Back Yoga" campaign to emphasise yoga's roots in Hinduism.[112]
For women
In the West, yoga is practiced mainly by women. For example, in Britain in the 1970s, women formed between 70 and 90 percent of most yoga classes, as well as most of the yoga teachers. It has been suggested that yoga was seen as a support for women in the face of male-dominated medicine, offering an alternative approach for chronic medical conditions, as well as to beauty and ageing, and it offered a way of meeting other women.
Effects
Asanas have, or are claimed to have, multiple effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful. These include the conscious usage of groups of muscles,[115] effects on health,[116] and possible injury especially in the presence of known contraindications.[117]
Muscle usage
A 2014 study indicated that different asanas activated particular groups of muscles, varying with the skill of the practitioners, from beginner to instructor. The eleven asanas in the Surya Namaskar sequences A and B (of
Claimed benefits
Medieval hatha yoga texts make a variety of claims for the benefits brought by the asanas, both spiritual and physical. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika (HYP) states that asanas in general, described as the first auxiliary of hatha yoga, give "steadiness, good health, and lightness of limb." (HYP 1.17)[119] Specific asanas, it claims, bring additional benefits; for example, Matsyendrasana awakens Kundalini and makes the semen steady; (HYP 1.27) Paschimottanasana "stokes up the digestive fire, slims the belly and gives good health"; (HYP 1.29) Shavasana "takes away fatigue and relaxes the mind"; (HYP 1.32) Siddhasana "bursts open the door to liberation"; (HYP 1.35) while Padmasana "destroys all diseases" (HYP 1.47) and if done together with retention of the breath in pranayama confers liberation. (HYP 1.44–49)[120] These claims lie within a tradition across all forms of yoga that practitioners can gain supernatural powers, but with ambivalence about their usefulness, since they may obstruct progress towards liberation.[121] Hemachandra's Yogashastra (1.8–9) lists the magical powers, which include healing, the destruction of poisons, the ability to become as small as an atom or to go wherever one wishes, invisibility, and shape-shifting.[122]
The asanas have been popularised in the Western world by claims about their health benefits, attained not by medieval hatha yoga magic but by the physical and psychological effects of exercise and stretching on the body.[123] The history of such claims was reviewed by William J. Broad in his 2012 book The Science of Yoga. Broad argues that while the health claims for yoga began as Hindu nationalist posturing, it turns out that there is ironically[116] "a wealth of real benefits".[116]
Physically, the practice of asanas has been claimed to improve flexibility, strength, and balance; to alleviate stress and anxiety, and to reduce the symptoms of
Contra-indications
The
The practice of asanas has sometimes been advised against during pregnancy, but that advice has been contested by a 2015 study which found no ill-effects from any of 26 asanas investigated. The study examined the effects of the set of asanas on 25 healthy women who were between 35 and 37 weeks pregnant. The authors noted that apart from their experimental findings, they had been unable to find any scientific evidence that supported the previously published concerns, and that on the contrary there was evidence including from systematic review that yoga was suitable for pregnant women, with a variety of possible benefits.[128][129]
Common practices
In the
Traditional and modern guidance
Different schools of yoga, such as Iyengar and
Surya Namaskar
Surya Namaskar, the Salute to the Sun, commonly practiced in most forms of modern yoga, links up to twelve asanas in a dynamically expressed yoga series. A full round consists of two sets of the series, the second set moving the opposing leg first. The asanas include
Styles
In the Western world, asanas are taught in differing styles by the various schools of yoga. Some poses like Trikonasana are common to many of them, but not always performed in the same way. Some independently documented approaches are described below.[138][139]
Iyengar Yoga "emphasises precision and alignment",[140] and prioritises correct movement over quantity, i.e. moving a little in the right direction is preferred to moving more but in a wrong direction. Postures are held for a relatively long period compared to other schools of yoga; this allows the muscles to relax and lengthen, and encourages awareness in the pose. Props including belts, blocks and blankets are freely used to assist students in correct working in the asanas.[140][139] Beginners are introduced early on to standing poses, executed with careful attention to detail. For example, in Trikonasana, the feet are often jumped apart to a wide stance, the forward foot is turned out, and the centre of the forward heel is exactly aligned with the centre of the arch of the other foot.[138]
In
Kripalu Yoga uses teachers from other asana traditions, focussing on mindfulness rather than using effort in the poses. Teachers may say "allow your arms to float up" rather than "bring up your arms".[138] The goal is to use the asanas "as a path of transformation."[138] The approach is in three stages: firstly instruction in body alignment and awareness of the breath during the pose; secondly, holding the pose long enough to observe "unconscious patterns of tension in the body-mind";[138] and thirdly, through "deep concentration and total surrender", allowing oneself "to be moved by prana".[138] In Trikonasana, the teacher may direct pupils' attention to pressing down with the outer edge of the back foot, lifting the arch of the foot, and then experimenting with "micro-movements", exploring where energy moves and how it feels.[138]
In
Apart from the brands, many independent teachers, for example in Britain, offer an unbranded "hatha yoga".[113]
Types
Asanas can be classified in different ways, which may overlap: for example, by the position of the head and feet (standing, sitting, reclining, inverted), by whether balancing is required, or by the effect on the spine (forward bend, backbend, twist), giving a set of asana types agreed by most authors.[145][146][147] Mittra uses his own categories such as "Floor & Supine Poses".[63] Darren Rhodes and others add "Core strength",[148][149][150] while Yogapedia and Yoga Journal also add "Hip-opening" to that set.[151][152] The table shows an example of each of these types of asana, with the title and approximate date of the earliest document describing (not only naming) that asana.
- GS = Goraksha Sataka, 10th century
- HY = Hemacandra's Yogasastra, 11th century
- VS = Vasishtha Samhita, 13th century
- HYP = Hatha Yoga Pradipika, 15th century
- JP = Joga Pradipika, 18th century
- ST = Sritattvanidhi, 19th century
- TK = Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, 20th century
Type | Described | Date | Example | English | Image |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Standing | TK | 20th C. | Parsvakonasana |
Side angle | |
Sitting Meditation |
GS 1:10–12 |
10th–11th C. | Siddhasana | Accomplished | |
Reclining | HYP 1:34 |
15th C. | Shavasana | Corpse | |
Inverted | HY |
11th C. | Sirsasana |
Yoga headstand |
|
Balancing | VS | 13th C. | Kukkutasana | Cockerel | |
Forward bend | HYP 1:30 |
15th C. | Paschimottanasana | Seated Forward Bend | |
Backbend | HYP 1:27 |
15th C. | Dhanurasana | Bow | |
Twisting | HYP 1.28–29 |
15th C. | Ardha Matsyendrasana |
Half Lord of the Fishes |
|
Hip-opening | HYP 1:20 |
15th C. | Gomukhasana | Cow Face | |
Core strength | ST | 19th C. | Navasana | Boat |
In culture
In religious art
Religious
In literature
The actress
Among yoga novels is the author and yoga teacher Edward Vilga's 2014 Downward Dog, named for Adho Mukha Svanasana, which paints a humorously unflattering picture of a man of the world who decides to become a private yoga teacher in New York society.[159][160] Ian Fleming's 1964 novel You Only Live Twice has the action hero James Bond visiting Japan, where he "assiduously practised sitting in the lotus position."[161] The critic Lisa M. Dresner notes that Bond is mirroring Fleming's own struggles with the pose.[162]
Notes
- Paśupati, "Lord of beasts", is a name of the later Hindu god Shiva.
- ^ A lakh is 100,000
- ^ signs of the zodiac, while in numerology, 7 is the sum of 3 and 4, and 12 is the product, i.e. 84 is (3+4)×(3×4).[29]
- Chakorasana, and Omkarasana, but with the right arm bent, not supporting the body.
- ^ The Hatha Ratnavali's list of 84 asanas is
- ", Silpasana,
- four types of Padmasana, such as Bandha, Kara, Samputita and Suddha;
- six types of Mayurasana such as Danda, Parsva, Sahaja, Bandha, Pinda, Ekapada;
- , Angusthasana, Mustika, Brahmaprasadita;
- five Kukkutas such as Pahcaculikukkuta, Ekapadakakukkuta, Akarita, Bandhacull and Parsvakukkuta;
- Ardhanarisvara, Savasana."
- Krauncasana, Drdhasana.
- Yogasana.[36]
- ^ 84 names of asanas are listed; not all can now be identified.
- ^ Bernard's book contains 37 photographs of himself performing asanas and mudras.[93]
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forward bending, backbending, and twisting. ...standing pose ... sitting ... inverted poses
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One leg is raised upon the throne in lalitasana (position of royal ease).
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- ISBN 978-0-691-11874-1.
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- Bharadwaj, S. (1896). Vyayama Dipika, Elements of Gymnastic Exercises, Indian System. Caxton Press. (no OCLC)
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ISBN 978-1-57731-402-8.
- Rhodes, Darren (2016). Yoga Resource Practice Manual. Tirtha Studios. ISBN 978-0-9836883-9-6.
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External links
- Beyogi Library of Yoga Poses – an illustrated set of asanas with descriptions
- Jack Cuneo Light on Yoga Project – a photographic record of one man's attempt to perform all Iyengar's asanas