Ash'arism
You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Arabic. (November 2020) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
|
Part of a series on Sunni Islam |
---|
Islam portal |
Ashʿarism or Ashʿarī theology
Al-Ashʿarī established a middle way between the doctrines of the
The disciples of the Ashʿarī school are known as Ashʿarites,
Amongst the most famous Ashʿarite theologians are
History
Founder
Part of a series on |
Ash'arism |
---|
Background |
While Al-Ashʿarī opposed the views of the rival
A section of the people (i.e., the Zahirites and others) made capital out of their own ignorance;
Companionswould have definitely done so; they further pointed out that the Prophet, before his death, discussed and fully explained all those matters which were necessary from the religious point of view, leaving none of them to be discussed by his followers; and since he did not discuss the problems mentioned above, it was evident that to discuss them must be regarded as an innovation.
Development
Ashʿarism became the main school of early Islamic philosophy whereby it was initially based on the foundations laid down by al-Ashʿarī, who founded the Ashʿarite school in the 10th century based on the methodology taught to him by the Kullabi movement that used rational argumentation to defend Sunni creed. However, the Ashʿarite school underwent many developments throughout history, resulting in the term Ashʿarī being extremely broad in its modern usage (e.g., differences between Ibn Furak (d. AH 406) and al-Bayhaqi (d. AH 384)).[40][41]
For example, the Ashʿarite view was that comprehension of the
The inspiration of al-Ashʿarī in this matter was on the one hand to distinguish essence and attribute as concepts, and on the other hand to see that the duality between essence and attribute should be situated not on the quantitative but on the qualitative level—something which
Beliefs
This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. (November 2023) |
Two popular sources for Ash'ari creeds are Maqalat al-Islamiyyin and Ibana'an Usul al-Diyana.[44]
God and God's attributes
Ashʿarites also hold beliefs about God's attributes that are unique to Him, such as:[45]
- Existence;
- Permanence without beginning;
- Endurance without end;
- Absoluteness and independence;
- Dissimilarity to created things;
- Oneness;
- God is all-powerful, willful, knowing, living, seeing, hearing, and speaking (signifying attributes).
God and relationship with humans
The Ashʿarī school of Islamic theology holds that:
- God is all-powerful (omnipotent).
- Good is what God commands – as revealed in the Quran and the ḥadīth — and is by definition just; evil is what God forbids and is likewise unjust.[46] Right and wrong are in no way determined intuitively or naturally, they are not objective realities.[47] (Divine command theory)
- Because of Divine omnipotence, there are no "natural laws" (of things like thermodynamics or gravity), because such laws would put limitations on His actions. There are, however, Divine "customs", whereby "certain so-called 'effects'" usually follow certain "causes" in the natural world.[48]
- Also because of Divine power, all human acts—even the decision to raise a finger—are created by God. This had caused controversy earlier in Islamic history because human acts are what humans are judged for when being sent to heaven (jannah) or hell (jahannam). Ashʿaris reconciled the doctrines of free will, justice, and divine omnipotence, with their own doctrine of kasb ("acquisition"), by which human beings "'acquire' responsibility for their actions,[49] although these "actions are willed and created by God".[48] Humans still possess free will (or, more accurately, freedom of intention) under this doctrine, although their freedom is limited to the power to decide between the given possibilities God has created.[28] (This doctrine is now known in Western philosophy as occasionalism.)
- The Quran is the uncreated word of God, that is, it was not created by God, but like God has always been. It can also be said to be created when it takes on a form in letters or sound.[49]
- The unique nature and attributes of God cannot be understood fully by human reason and the physical senses.[46]
- Reason is God-given and must be employed over the source of knowledge.[28][clarification needed]
- Intellectual inquiry is decreed by the Quran and the
- Only God knows the heart, who belongs to the faithful and who does not.[51]
- God has "absolute freedom" to "punish or reward as He wills",[48] and so may forgive the sins of those in Hell.[52]
- Support of kalām (rationalistic Islamic theology).
Prophets and the unseen
Ashʿarites further affirm that Muslims beliefs include:
- In all the prophets and messengers of Islam, from Adam to Muhammad.[22]
- Dajjal[53]
- Belief in the angels.[22]
- Including the angels of the grave (Munkar and Nakir).[54]
- That Satan tempts man, contrarily to the Mu'tazila and Jahmiyya (the mention of the latter two branches only appears in Ibana).[55]
- Paradise and hell.
- That prayers for dead Muslims and almsgiving reach them.[56]
- During sleep, visions can be seen and they have an interpretation ("interpretation" only found in Ibana).[57]
- The existence of sorcerers and that magic is a reality in the world.[58]
- That jinn are real and able to physically possess people, although not mentioned in the works above, many Ash'arites consider this as part of the aqida.[59]
Ashʿarism and reason
It is said that in the early period, Ash'arites followed a method that combined reason and revelation.[60] This is in contrast to the assertation by some Ash'arites that those who believe without thinking (mukallid) cannot be true believers.[61] This view indicates that believing in religion without using reason and thought is considered invalid according to them.
The later period some Ash'arites prioritized reason and relegated revelation to a secondary position, stating that revelation could never contradict reason.[62] Examples of these include al-Juwayni, al-Ghazali, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, and Qadi Baydawi. The majority of the Ash'arites went further, stating that only reason provides certain knowledge, while revelation is merely a matter of conjecture and cannot provide knowledge or certainty.[63] Because of these views, they were criticized by the Salafis.[64]
Contrary to this, some within the school, such as al-Taftazani, have sometimes stated that revelation also represents knowledge, while Ibn al-Tilimsanī criticized al-Razī, asking what grounds legal rulings if all revelation were mere conjecture, stating that revelation cannot entirely be based on conjecture.[65]
Later Ashʿarism
Nicholas Heer writes that later Ashʿarite theologians "increasingly attempted to rationalize Islamic doctrine" from about the 12th century onwards. Theologians such as al-Taftāzānī[66] and al-Jurjānī [67] argued that the Islamic sacred scriptures (the Quran and the ḥadīth) "must be proven to be true by rational arguments" before being "accepted as the basis of the religion". Educated Muslims "must be convinced on the basis of rational arguments".[68] A series of rational proofs were developed by these Ashʿarite theologians, including proofs for "the following doctrines or propositions":
- The universe is originated;
- The universe has an originator or creator;
- The creator of the universe is knowing, powerful and willing;
- Prophecy is possible;
- Miracles are possible;
- Miracles indicate the truthfulness of one who claims to be a prophet;
- Muhammad claimed to be a prophet and performed miracles.[68]
Criticism
This article's "criticism" or "controversy" section may compromise the article's neutrality. (August 2021) |
The medieval Muslim scholar
In contrast, German scholar Eduard Sachau affirms that the Ashʿarī theology and its biggest defender, al-Ghazali, was too literal and responsible for the decline of Islamic science starting in the 10th century. Sachau stated that the two clerics were the only obstacle to the Muslim world becoming a nation of "Galileos, Keplers, and Newtons".[71]
See also
- 2016 international conference on Sunni Islam in Grozny
- 2020 International Maturidi Conference
- Islamic schools and branches
- List of prominent Ash'aris
Notes
- ^ LCCN 2005023943.
- ^ "al-Ashʿari". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
- ^ ISSN 1875-9823.
- ^ LCCN 2016935488.
- ^ [1][3][4]
- LCCN 12032032.
- OCLC 1291928025.
- ^ [6][7]
- ^ S2CID 169898034.
- ^ [1][4][9]
- ^ S2CID 219026357.
- ^ a b c d Halverson 2010, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Weeks, Douglas. "The Ideology of Al Muhajiroun." Al Muhajiroun. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2020. 103-140.
- ^ [1][9][11][12][13]
- ^ Gyekye, Kwame. "Theology and Law in Islam." (1976): 304-306.
- ^ Fah̲rī, Mağīd. Ethical theories in Islam. Vol. 8. Brill, 1991.
- ^ Hashas, Mohammed. "Is European Islam Experiencing an Ontological Revolution for an Epistemological Awakening?." American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 31: 4 (2014): 14.
- ^ [1][9][12][15][16][17]
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7914-3760-5.
- ^ [1][4][9][11][12]
- ^ [1][4][9][11][12]
- ^ ISBN 978-1-134-22564-4chapter 5
- ISBN 978-1-438-12696-8page 66
- ^ [1][3][19][22][23]
- ISBN 9789089644510. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
- ^ [3][4][19][25]
- ^ Halverson 2010, p. 9.
- ^ a b c Hughes 2013, pp. 193–194.
- ^ Hamad al-Sanan, Fawziy al-'Anjariy, Ahl al-Sunnah al-Asha'irah, pp.248-258. Dar al-Diya'.
- ^ "The Myth of Intellectual Decline: A Response to Shaykh Hamza Yusuf". 27 November 2017.
Ibn Khaldun on Philosophy: After clarifying what was meant precisely by philosophy in the Islamic tradition, namely the various schools of peripatetic philosophy represented either by Ibn Rushd or Ibn Sina, it should be clear why Ibn Khaldun was opposed to them. His critique of philosophy is an Ash'ari critique, completely in line with the Ash'aris before him, including Ghazali and Fakhr al-din al-Razi, both of whom Ibn Khaldun recommends for those who wish to learn how to refute the philosophers
- ^ Sardar, Ziauddin (1998), "Science in Islamic philosophy", Islamic Philosophy, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 2008-02-03
- ISSN 1875-9823.
- ISBN 0195165209
- ISBN 0755210115
- ISBN 0761479295
- ^ Allard, Michel. "Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī, Muslim theologian". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2020-10-29. Retrieved 2021-04-01.
- ^ "Ash'arism". A History of Muslim Philosophy.
- ^ Watt, Montgomery. Free-Will and Predestination in Early Islam. Luzac & Co.: London 1948.
- ^ M. Abdul Hye, Ph.D, Ash’arism, Philosophia Islamica.
- ^ "Imam Bayhaqi". Archived from the original on 2018-06-03. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
- ^ "Imam Abu Bakr Al-Bayhaqi | Shafii Fiqh.com | Shafii Institute". Archived from the original on 2013-02-16. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
- ^ Corbin (1993), pp. 115 and 116
- ^ "Fatawa – Who are the Ash'arites?". Dar al-Ifta al Misriyyah. Retrieved 2020-10-14.
- ^ Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 Appendix IV
- ^ Al Numan ibn Thabit, Abu Hanifa. Al-Fiqh-Al-Akbar-An-Accurate-Translation. SunnahMuakada.com. pp. 43–44.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-199-88041-6p. 281
- ISBN 978-1-78074-420-9. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
- ^ a b c Gibb, H.A.R. (1953) [1949]. Mohammedanism. Oxford University Press. p. 117.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-759-10190-6page 62-3
- ISBN 978-1-317-27339-4page 163
- ISBN 978-1-847-06478-3page 21
- ISBN 978-1-135-17960-1page 183
- ^ Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 p. 250
- ^ Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 p. 250
- ^ Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 p. 252
- ^ Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 p. 251
- ^ Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 p. 251
- ^ Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 p. 251
- ^ Islam, Migration and Jinn: Spiritual Medicine in Muslim Health Management. (2021). Deutschland: Springer International Publishing.
- ^ YAVUZ, Yusuf Şevki. Eş'ariyye. TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi, İstanbul 1995. c.XI p. 449
- ^ BAĞDÂDÎ, Abdulkâhir. Kitabu Usuli'd-Dîn. Çvr. Ömer AYDIN. İşaret Yayınları, İstanbul 2016. p. 291
- ^ CÜVEYNÎ, Ebu'l-Me'âlî: Kitâbü'l-İrşâd. Çvr. Prof. Adnan BALOĞLU. T.D.V. Yayınları, Ankara 2016. p. 292.
- ^ CÜRCÂNÎ, Seyyid Şerîf: Şerhü'l-Mevâkıf, Trcm. Prof.Dr. Ömer TÜRKER, Türkiye Yazma Eserler Kurumu Başkanlığı Yayınları, İstanbul, 2015, c. I, p. 440
- ^ YAVUZ, Yusuf Şevki: Eş'ariyye, TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi, İstanbul, 1995, c. XI, s. 453.
- ^ İBNÜ't-TİLİMSÂNÎ, Abdullah: Nşr. Mahmud Avvad SALİM: Şerhu Me'âlimi Usûli'd-Dîn, Daru'l-Kütübi'l-Mısriyye, Kahire, 2011. p. 125-26.
- ^ See the article “al-Taftāzānī” by W. Madelung in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. X, pp. 88-89
- ^ See the article “al-Djurdjānī” by A.S. Tritton in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. II, pp. 602-603
- ^ a b Heer, Nicholas (n.d.). "A LECTURE ON ISLAMIC THEOLOGY" (PDF). University of Washington Faculty. pp. 10–11. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-78074-420-9. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-78074-420-9. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
- ISBN 9780313335761
- ^ Sardar, Ziauddin (1998), "Science in Islamic philosophy", Islamic Philosophy, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 2008-02-03
- Monthly Renaissance, 18 (10), retrieved 2008-10-14
- S2CID 170934544
Bibliography
- Frank, Richard M. (2016) [2008]. LCCN 2008927099. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
- Halverson, Jeffry R. (2010). "The Doctrines of Sunni Theology". Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism. New York: ISBN 978-0-230-10658-1. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
- JSTOR 10.7312/hugh16146.13. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
External links
- Who are the Ash'arites? Archived 2016-03-05 at the Wayback Machine Dar al-Iftaa Al-Missriyyah
- The Ash'ari's School of Theology Archived 2018-01-04 at the Wayback Machine Dar al-Iftaa Al-Missriyyah
- Ashariyys – The Knights of Knowledge and the Pioneers of Success – sunna.info