Edicts of Ashoka
Edicts of Ashoka | |
---|---|
Ai Khanoum Capital cities(Greek city) |
Part of a series on the |
Edicts of Ashoka |
---|
The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of more than thirty inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, attributed to Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire who reigned from 268 BCE to 232 BCE.[1] Ashoka used the expression Dhaṃma Lipi (Prakrit in the Brahmi script: 𑀥𑀁𑀫𑀮𑀺𑀧𑀺, "Inscriptions of the Dharma") to describe his own Edicts.[2] These inscriptions were dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Afghanistan and Pakistan, and provide the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail Ashoka's view on dhamma, an earnest attempt to solve some of the problems that a complex society faced.[3] According to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created.
These inscriptions proclaim Ashoka's adherence to the
In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as "Beloved of the Gods" (
The inscriptions revolve around a few recurring themes: Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare program. The edicts were based on Ashoka's ideas on administration and behaviour of people towards one another and religion.
Decipherment
Besides a few inscriptions in
The first successful attempts at deciphering the ancient
The
The Edicts
The Edicts are divided into four categories, according to their size (Minor or Major) and according to their medium (Rock or Pillar). Chronologically, the minor inscriptions tend to precede the larger ones, while rock inscriptions generally seem to have been started earlier than the pillar inscriptions:
- Minor Rock Edicts: Edicts inscribed at the beginning of Ashoka's reign; in Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic.
- Rummindei Edict, Nigali Sagar Edict; in Prakrit.
- Major Rock Edicts: 14 Edicts (termed 1st to 14th) and 2 separate ones found in Odisha; in Prakrit and Greek.
- Major Pillar Edicts: 7 Edicts, inscribed at the end of Ashoka's reign; in Prakrit.
- General content
The
On the contrary, the
Minor Rock Edicts
The
Chronologically, the first known edict, sometimes classified as a Minor Rock Edict, is the
Ashoka then made the first edicts in the Indian language, written in the
There are several slight variations in the content of these edicts, depending on location, but a common designation is usually used, with Minor Rock Edict N°1 (MRE1)[22] and a Minor Rock Edict N°2 (MRE2, which does not appear alone but always in combination with Edict N°1), the different versions being generally aggregated in most translations. The Maski version of Minor Rock Edict No.1 is historically particularly important in that it confirmed the association of the title "Devanampriya" with the name "Asoka", thereby clarifying the historical author of all these inscriptions.[23][24] In the Gujarra version of Minor Rock Edict No.1 also, the name of Ashoka is used together with his full title: Devanampiya Piyadasi Asokaraja.[4]
There is also a unique Minor Rock Edict No.3, discovered next to Bairat Temple, for the Buddhist clergy, which gives a list of Buddhist scriptures (most of them unknown today) which the clergy should study regularly.[26]
A few other inscriptions of Ashoka in
The Minor Rock Edicts can be found throughout the territory of Ashoka, including in the frontier area near the Hindu Kush, and are especially numerous in the southern, newly conquered, frontier areas of Karnataka and southern Andhra Pradesh.
Minor Pillar Edicts
The Minor Pillar Edicts of Ashoka refer to five separate minor Edicts inscribed on columns, the Pillars of Ashoka.[27] These edicts are preceded chronologically by the Minor Rock Edicts and may have been made in parallel with the Major Rock Edicts.
The inscription technique is generally very poor compared for example to the later Major Pillar Edicts, however the Minor Pillar Edicts are often associated with some of the artistically most sophisticated pillar capitals of Ashoka, such as the renowned Lion Capital of Ashoka which crowned the Sarnath Minor Pillar Edict, or the very similar, but less well preserved Sanchi lion capital which crowned the very clumsily inscribed Schism Edict of Sanchi.[28] According to Irwin, the Brahmi inscriptions on the Sarnath and Sanchi pillars were made by inexperienced Indian engravers at a time when stone engraving was still new in India, whereas the very refined Sarnath capital itself was made under the tutelage of craftsmen from the former Achaemenid Empire, trained in Perso-Hellenistic statuary and employed by Ashoka.[29] This suggests that the most sophisticated capitals were actually the earliest in the sequence of Ashokan pillars and that style degraded over a short period of time.[28]
These edicts were probably made at the beginning of the reign of Ashoka (reigned 268-232 BCE), from the year 12 of his reign, that is, from 256 BCE.[30]
The Minor Pillar Edicts are the Schism Edict, warning of punishment for dissent in the
Major Rock Edicts
The Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka refer to 14 separate major Edicts, which are significantly detailed and extensive.[31] These Edicts were concerned with practical instructions in running the kingdom such as the design of irrigation systems and descriptions of Ashoka's beliefs in peaceful moral behavior. They contain little personal detail about his life.[32] These edicts are preceded chronologically by the Minor Rock Edicts.
Three languages were used,
The Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka are inscribed on large rocks, except for the Kandahar version in Greek (
Major Pillar Edicts
The Major Pillar Edicts of Ashoka refer to seven separate major Edicts inscribed on columns, the Pillars of Ashoka, which are significantly detailed and extensive.[27]
These edicts are preceded chronologically by the Minor Rock Edicts and the Major Rock Edicts, and constitute the most technically elegant of the inscriptions made by Ashoka. They were made at the end of his reign, from the years 26 and 27 of his reign, that is, from 237 to 236 BCE.
The Major Pillar Edicts of Ashoka were exclusively inscribed on the
The Major Pillar Edicts (excluding the two fragments of translations found in modern Afghanistan) are all located in central India.[40]
The Pillars of Ashoka are stylistically very close to an important Buddhist monument, also built by Ashoka in
Languages of the Edicts
Three languages were used:
Four scripts were used. Prakrit inscriptions were written in the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, the latter for the area of modern Pakistan. The Greek and Aramaic inscriptions used their respective scripts, in the northwestern areas of Ashoka's territory, in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan.
While most Edicts were in
By contrast, in the rock edicts engraved in southern India in the newly conquered territories of
Ashoka's edicts were the first written inscriptions in India after the ancient city of
Content of the Edicts
The Dharma preached by Ashoka is explained mainly in term of moral precepts, based on the doing of good deeds, respect for others, generosity and purity. The expressions used by Ashoka to express the Dharma, were the
Moral precepts
- Right behaviour
Dharma is good. And what is Dharma? It is having few faults and many good deeds, mercy, charity, truthfulness and purity. (Major Pillar Edict No.2)[51]
Thus the glory of Dhamma will increase throughout the world, and it will be endorsed in the form of mercy, charity, truthfulness, purity, gentleness, and virtue. (Major Pillar Edict No. 7)[27]
- Benevolence
Ashoka's Dharma meant that he used his power to try to make life better for his people and he also tried to change the way people thought and lived. He also thought that dharma meant doing the right thing.
- Kindness to prisoners
Ashoka showed great concern for fairness in the exercise of justice, caution and tolerance in the application of sentences, and regularly pardoned prisoners.
But it is desirable that there should be uniformity in judicial procedure and punishment. This is my instruction from now on. Men who are imprisoned or sentenced to death are to be given three days respite. Thus their relations may plead for their lives, or, if there is no one to plead for them, they may make donations or undertake a fast for a better rebirth in the next life. For it is my wish that they should gain the next world. (Major Pillar Edict No. 4)[27]
In the period [from my consecration] to [the anniversary on which] I had been consecrated twenty-six years, twenty-five releases of prisoners have been made. (Major Pillar Edict No. 5)[27]
- Respect for animal life
The Mauryan empire was the first Indian empire to unify the country and it had a clear-cut policy of exploiting as well as protecting natural resources with specific officials tasked with protection duty. When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was perhaps the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife. Reference to these can be seen inscribed on the stone edicts.[52][53]
This rescript on morality has been caused to be written by Devanampriya Priyadarsin. Here no living being must be killed and sacrificed. And also no festival meeting must be held. For king Devanampriya Priyadarsin sees much evil in festival meetings. And there are also some festival meetings which are considered meritorious by king Devanampriya Priyadarsin. Formerly in the kitchen of king Devanampriya Priyadarsin many hundred thousands of animals were killed daily for the sake of curry. But now, when this rescript on morality is caused to be written, then only three animals are being killed (daily), (viz.) two peacocks (and) one deer, but even this deer not regularly. But even these three animals shall not be killed (in future). (Major Rock Edict No.1)[54][27]
King Devanampriya Priyadansin speaks thus. (When I had been) anointed twenty-six years, the following animals were declared by me inviolable, viz. parrots, mainas, the aruna, ruddy geese, wild geese, the nandimukha, the gelata, bats, queen-ants, terrapins, boneless fish, the vedaveyaka, the Ganga-puputaka, skate-fish, tortoises and porcupines, squirrels (?), the srimara, bulls set at liberty, iguanas (?), the rhinoceros, white doves, domestic doves, (and) all the quadrupeds which are neither useful nor edible. Those [she-goats], ewes, and sows (which are) either with young or in milk, are inviolable, and also those (of their) young ones (which are) less than six months old. Cocks must not be caponed. Husks containing living animals must not be burnt. Forests must not be burnt either uselessly or in order to destroy (living beings). Living animals must not be fed with (other) living animals. (Major Pillar Edict No.5)[55][27]
Ashoka advocated restraint in the number that had to be killed for consumption, protected some of them, and in general condemned violent acts against animals, such as castration.
However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices then freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[53]
Religious precepts
- Buddhism
Explicit mentions of Buddhism or the Buddha only appear in the
I have been a Buddhist layman ("Budha-
Order and have become more ardent. (Minor Rock Edict No.1)[27]
The king of Magadha, Piyadassi, greets the Order and wishes it prosperity and freedom from care. You know Sirs, how deep is my respect for and faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Samgha [i.e. the Buddhist creed]. Sirs, whatever was spoken by the Lord Buddha was well spoken. (Minor Rock Edict No.3)[27]
These sermons on Dhamma, Sirs - the Excellence of the Discipline, the Lineage of the Noble One, the Future Fears, the Verses of, the Sage, the Sutra of Silence, the Question, of Upatissa, and the Admonition spoken by the Lord Buddha to
Rahula on the subject of false speech - these sermons on the Dhamma, Sirs, I desire that many monks and nuns should hear frequently and meditate upon, and likewise laymen and laywomen. (Minor Rock Edict No.3)[27]
Ashoka also expressed his devotion for the
- Belief in a next world
By doing so, there is gain in this world, and in the next there is infinite merit, through the gift of Dhamma. (Major Rock Edict No.11)[27]
It is hard to obtain happiness in this world and the next without extreme love of Dhamma, much vigilance, much obedience, much fear of sin, and extreme energy. (Major Pillar Edict No. 1)[27]
- Religious exchange
Far from being
The Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, wishes that all sect may dwell in all places, for all seek self-control and purity of mind. (Major Rock Edict No.7)[27]
For whosoever praises his own sect or blames other sects, — all (this) out of pure devotion to his own sect, (i.e.) with the view of glorifying his own sect, — if he is acting thus, he rather injures his own sect very severely. But concord is meritorious, (i.e.) that they should both hear and obey each other's morals. For this is the desire of Devanampriya, (viz.) that all sects should be both full of learning and pure in doctrine. And those who are attached to their respective (sects), ought to be spoken to (as follows). Devanampriya does not value either gifts or honours so (highly) as (this), (viz.) that a promotion of the essentials of all sects should take place. (Major Rock Edict No.12)[62][27]
Social and animal welfare
According to the edicts, Ashoka took great care of the welfare of his subjects (human and animal), and those beyond his borders, spreading the use of medicinal treatments, improving roadside facilities for more comfortable travel, and establishing "officers of the faith" throughout his territories to survey the welfare of the population and the propagation of the Dharma. The Greek king Antiochos ("the Yona king named Antiyoga" in the text of the Edicts) is also named as a recipient of Ashoka's generosity, together with the other kings neighbouring him.[63]
- Medicinal treatments
Everywhere in the dominions of king Devanampriya Priyadarsin and (of those) who (are his) borderers, such as the
Antiyoga, and the other kings who are the neighbours of this Antiyoga, everywhere two (kinds of) medical treatment were established by king Devanampriya Priyadarsin, (viz.) medical treatment for men and medical treatment for cattle. Wherever there were no herbs beneficial to men and beneficial to cattle, everywhere they were caused to be imported and to be planted. Likewise, wherever there were no roots and fruits, everywhere they were caused to be imported and to be planted. On the roads trees were planted, and wells were caused to be dug for the use of cattle and men. (Major Rock Edict No. 2, Khalsi version)[67][27]
- Roadside facilities
On the roads banyan-trees were caused to be planted by me, (in order that) they might afford shade to cattle and men, (and) mango-groves were caused to be planted. And (at intervals) of eight kos wells were caused to be dug by me, and flights of steps (for descending into the water) were caused to be built. Numerous drinking-places were caused to be established by me, here and there, for the enjoyment of cattle and men. [But] this so-called enjoyment (is) [of little consequence]. For with various comforts have the people been blessed both by former kings and by myself. But by me this has been done for the following purpose: that they might conform to that practice of morality. (Major Pillar Edict No.7)[55][27]
- Officers of the faith
Now, in times past (officers) called
Gandharas, and whatever other western borderers (of mine there are). They are occupied with servants and masters, with Brahmanas and Ibhiyas, with the destitute; (and) with the aged, for the welfare and happiness of those who are devoted to morality, (and) in releasing (them) from the fetters (of worldly life). (Major Rock Edict No.5)[68][27]
- Birthplace of the historical Buddha
In a particularly famous Edict, the Rummindei Edict in
Translation (English) |
Transliteration (original Brahmi script) |
Inscription (Prakrit in the Brahmi script) |
---|---|---|
|
|
Ashoka's proselytism according to the Edicts
In order to propagate welfare, Ashoka explains that he sent emissaries and medicinal plants to the
Proselytism beyond India
Now, it is the conquest by the Dharma that the Beloved of the Gods considers as the best conquest. And this one (the conquest by the Dharma) was won here, on the borders, and even as (far/to the extent of) 600
Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni.— Extract fromMajor Rock Edict No.13.[78]
The distance of 600 yojanas (> 2,000 km) corresponds roughly to the distance between the center of India and Greece.[63]
In the Gandhari original Antiochos is referred to as Amtiyoge nama Yona-raja (lit. "The Greek king by the name of Antiokos"), beyond whom live the four other kings: param ca tena Atiyogena cature 4 rajani Tulamaye nama Amtekine nama Makā nama Alikasudaro nama (lit. "And beyond Antiochus, four kings by the name of Ptolemy, the name of Antigonos, the name of Magas, the name Alexander".[79]
- Amtiyaka (𑀅𑀁𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀓) or Amtiyoga (𑀅𑀁𑀢𑀺𑀕), refers to Antiochus II Theos of Syria (261–246 BCE), who controlled the Seleucid Empire from Syria to Bactria in the east from 305 to 250 BCE, and was therefore a direct neighbor of Ashoka.[63][80]
- Tulamāya (
- Amtekina (
- Makā (𑀫𑀓𑀸) refers to Magas of Cyrene (300–258 BCE).[63][80]
- Alikyaṣadala (𑀅𑀁𑀮𑀺𑀱𑀤𑀮) refers to Alexander II of Epirus (272–258 BCE).[63][80]
All the kings mentioned in Ashoka's Major Rock Edict No.13 are famous Hellenistic rulers, contemporary of Ashoka:[63][81]
-
Seleucid king Antiochus II Theos of Syria (261–246 BCE).
-
Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285–247 BCE) with his sister Arsinoe II.
-
Macedon(278–239 BCE).
-
Magas of Cyrene (300–258 BCE).
-
Alexander II of Epirus (272–258 BCE) on a cameo of agate.
- Emissaries
It is not clear in Hellenic records whether these emissaries were actually received, or had any influence on the Hellenic world. But the existence of the edicts in a very high-level Greek literary and philosophical language testifies to the high sophistication of the Greek community of Kandahar, and to a true communication between Greek intellectuals and Indian thought.[82][83] According to historian Louis Robert, it becomes quite likely that these Kandahar Greeks who were very familiar with Indian culture could in turn transmit Indian ideas to the philosophical circles of the Mediterranean world, in Seleucia, Antioch, Alexandria, Pella or Cyrene.[83] He suggests that the famous Ashoka emissaries sent to the Western Hellenistic Courts according to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict No.13 were in fact Greek subjects and citizens of Kandahar, who had the full capacity to carry out these embassies.[83]
Another document, the
- Presence in the West
Overall, the evidence for the presence of Buddhists in the west from that time is very meager.
- Possible influences on Western thought
Colonial era scholars such as
But numerous authors have noted the parallels between Buddhism, Cyrenaicism and Epicureanism, which all strive for a state of ataraxia ("equanimity") away from the sorrows of life.[97][98][99] The positions of philosophers such as Hegesias of Cyrene were close to Buddhism, his ideas recalling the Buddhist doctrine of suffering: he lived in the city of Cyrene where Magas ruled, the same Magas under whom the Dharma prospered according to Ashoka, and he may have been influenced by Ashoka's missionaries.[99][100][101][102]
The religious communities of the
Proselytism within Ashoka's territories
Inside India proper, in the realm of Ashoka, many different populations were the object of the King's proselytism. Greek communities also lived in the northwest of the Mauryan empire, currently in Pakistan, notably ancient
Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the
Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Rock Edict No.13 (S. Dhammika)
Influences
Achaemenid inscriptional tradition
The inscriptions of Ashoka may show
Hellenistic inscriptions
It has also been suggested that inscriptions bearing the Delphic maxims from the Seven Sages of Greece, inscribed by philosopher Clearchus of Soli in the neighbouring city of Ai-Khanoum circa 300 BCE, may have influenced the writings of Ashoka.[115][116] These Greek inscriptions, located in the central square of Ai-Khanoum, put forward traditional Greek moral rules which are very close to the Edicts, both in term of formulation and content.[116][117]
Ancestor of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system
The first examples of the
The number "
Influence on the Indian epigraphy
Ashokan inscriptions in Prakrit precede by several centuries inscriptions in Sanskrit, probably owing to the great prestige which Ashokan inscriptions gave to the Prakrit language.[124] Louis Renou called it "the great linguistical paradox of India" that the Sanskrit inscriptions appear later than Prakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.[124]
Ashoka was probably the first Indian ruler to create stone inscriptions, and in doing so, he began an important Indian tradition of royal epigraphical inscriptions.
The Brahmi script used in the Edicts of Ashoka, as well as the Prakrit language of these inscriptions was in popular use down through the Kushan period, and remained readable down to the 4th century CE during the Gupta period. After that time the script underwent significant evolutions which rendered the Ashokan inscriptions unreadable. This still means that Ashoka's Edicts were for everyone to see and understand for a period of nearly 700 years in India, suggesting that they remained significantly influential for a long time.[129]
Questions of authorship
According to some scholars such as
This inscriptional evidence may suggest that
On the contrary, for Beckwith, Ashoka himself was a later king of the 1st-2nd century CE, whose name only appears explicitly in the
However, many of Beckwith's methodologies and interpretations concerning early Buddhism, inscriptions, and archaeological sites have been criticized by other scholars, such as Johannes Bronkhorst and Osmund Bopearachchi.[134][135]
Timeline
Regnal years of Ashoka |
Type of Edict (and location of the inscriptions) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Year 8 | End of the Kalinga War and conversion to the "Dharma | |||
Year 10[136] | Minor Rock Edicts | Related events: Visit to the | ||
Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription (in Greek and Aramaic, Kandahar) | ||||
Minor Rock Edicts in Taxila inscription
| ||||
Year 11 and later | Minor Rock Edicts (n°1, n°2 and n°3) (Panguraria, Maski, Palkigundu and Gavimath, Bahapur/Srinivaspuri, Bairat, Ahraura, Gujarra, Sasaram, Rajula Mandagiri, Yerragudi, Udegolam, Nittur, Brahmagiri, Siddapur, Jatinga-Rameshwara) | |||
Year 12 and later[136] | Barabar Caves inscriptions | Major Rock Edicts
| ||
Minor Pillar Edicts | Major Rock Edicts in Greek: Sopara, Sannati, Yerragudi, Delhi Edicts) )
Major Rock Edicts 1-10, 14, Separate Edicts 1&2: (Dhauli, Jaugada | |||
Year 26, 27 and later[136] |
Major Pillar Edicts | |||
In Indian language: ) Derived inscriptions in Aramaic, on rock: |
See also
- List of Edicts of Ashoka
- Pillars of Ashoka
- Ashokan Edicts in Delhi
- Major Rock Edicts
- Gandhāran Buddhist texts
- Gandharan Buddhism
- Greco-Buddhism
- Kambojas
Notes
- Gandhari original of Edict No. 13 (Greek kings: Paragraph 9): Text Archived 21 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
References
Citations
- ^ Le 2010, p. 30.
- ISBN 9788131711200. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 28 September 2018.
- ^ "The Ashokan rock edicts are a marvel of history". Archived from the original on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
- ^ a b Malalasekera, Gunapala Piyasena (1990). Encyclopaedia of Buddhism. Government of Ceylon. p. 16. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- ^ a b Salomon 1998, p. 208.
- ^ Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta : Printed at the Baptist Mission Press [etc.] 1838.
- ^ Salomon 1998, pp. 204–206.
- ^ ISBN 9781351252744. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- ^ More details about Buddhist monuments at Sanchi Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Archaeological Survey of India, 1989.
- ^ Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta : Printed at the Baptist Mission Press [etc.] 1838. pp. 219–285.
- ^ Prinsep, J (1837). "Interpretation of the most ancient of inscriptions on the pillar called lat of Feroz Shah, near Delhi, and of the Allahabad, Radhia and Mattiah pillar, or lat inscriptions which agree therewith". Journal of the Asiatic Society. 6: 566–609.
- ^ Prinsep, J. (1837). "Further elucidation of the lat or Silasthambha inscriptions from various sources". Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal: 790–797.
- ^ Prinsep, J. (1837). "Note on the Facsimiles of the various Inscriptions on the ancient column at Allahabad, retaken by Captain Edward Smith, Engineers". Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 6: 963–980.
- ^ ISBN 9780226531779. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- ^ Salomon 1998, pp. 205–215.
- ^ Roy Sourindranath, The Story of Indian Archaeology, 1784-1947, ASI, New Delhi, 1961, p.26.
- ^ a b India: An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early ... by Dilip K. Chakrabarty p. 395 Archived 27 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Hultzsch 1925.
- ^ a b Valeri P. Yailenko Les maximes delphiques d'Aï Khanoum et la formation de la doctrine du dharma d'Asoka Archived 12 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine Dialogues d'histoire ancienne vol.16 n°1, 1990, p.243
- ^ JSTOR 41693531.
- ^ John Irwin, "The True Chronology of Aśokan Pillars" Archived 30 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine, in:Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1983), p. 247-265
- ^ Minor Rock Edict 1
- ^ The Cambridge Shorter History of India. CUP Archive. p. 42. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
- ISBN 9788184758078. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
- ^ Sircar, D. C. (1979). Asokan studies.
- ^ Inscriptions of Asoka by DC Sircar p.32-22 Archived 27 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Romila Thapar (1997). "Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas" (PDF). Delhi: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
- ^ a b The True Chronology of Aśokan Pillars, John Irwin, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1983), pp. 264 [1] Archived 30 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ JSTOR 3249612.
- ^ from the original on 12 June 2019. Retrieved 7 March 2019.
- ^ "This excerpt from a new book demolishes Emperor Ashoka's reputation as a pacifist". 5 August 2016. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 4 September 2018.
- ^ "The Edicts of King Ashoka". Archived from the original on 14 March 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
- ^ Une nouvelle inscription grecque d'Açoka, Schlumberger, Daniel, Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres Année 1964 Volume 108 Numéro 1 pp. 126-140 [2] Archived 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 9788120809550. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2018.
- ISBN 9780199088683. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
- ^ Inscriptions of Asoka de D.C. Sircar p.30 Archived 27 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Handbuch der Orientalistik de Kurt A. Behrendt p.39 Archived 27 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- JSTOR 3249612.
- JSTOR 878154.
- ISBN 9788120809550. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2018.
- ^ A Global History of Architecture, Francis D. K. Ching, Mark M. Jarzombek, Vikramaditya Prakash, John Wiley & Sons, 2017 p.570ff Archived 27 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Buddhist Architecture, Huu Phuoc Le p.240
- ISBN 9781408703885. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
- ^ The True Chronology of Aśokan Pillars, John Irwin, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1983), pp. 247-265 [3] Archived 30 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Salomon 1998, pp. 73–76.
- ^ a b Salomon 1998, p. 72.
- ^ Une nouvelle inscription grecque d'Açoka, Schlumberger, Daniel, Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres Année 1964 Volume 108 Numéro 1 pp. 136-140 [4] Archived 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ A Sourcebook of Indian Civilization published by Niharranjan Ray, Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya p. 592 Archived 27 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The Life Of Ashoka Mauryan - His legacyb". Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
- ISBN 9780195394238. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- ^ Romila Thapar (1997). "Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas" (PDF). Delhi: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
- ^ Chakravarti, Monmohan (1906). "Animals in the inscriptions of Piyadasi". Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1 (17): 361–374.
- ^ a b Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife History, p. 8.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. 27.
- ^ a b Hultzsch 1925, p. 119-
- ISBN 9788131711200. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ISBN 9780674975279. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
- ^ "King Asoka and Buddhism, Edited by Anuradha Seneviratna, p.44" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2017. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. 174.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. 165.
- ISBN 9780674057777. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. 34.
- ^ ISBN 9780674728820. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. 3.
- ISBN 9788171417100. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
- ISBN 978-9004039148. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. 28.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. 32.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. 164.
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, pp. 3–5.
- ISBN 9788176481700. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- ISBN 9781478637646. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- ISBN 9781412831321. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
- ^ Thapar, Romila (1997). Aśkoa and the decline of the Mauryas (PDF) (Revised ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 250–266. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
- ^ S. Dhammika, The Edicts of King Ashoka. The Fourteen Rock Edicts/13 Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. 46.
- ^ a b c d e f Thomas Mc Evilly "The shape of ancient thought", Allworth Press, New York, 2002, p. 368.
- ISBN 9780674057777. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
- ISBN 9780674057777. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
- ^ a b c Une nouvelle inscription grecque d'Açoka [article], Schlumberger, Daniel, Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres Année 1964 p. 139 Archived 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Mahavamsa. "Chapter XII". lakdiva.org. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
- ISBN 9788170170907.
- ISBN 978-9004158306. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
- ^ a b c Thomas Mc Evilly "The shape of ancient thought", Allworth Press, New York, 2002, p. 383.
- ^ "For I behold among you, not merely Greeks and Italians and people from neighbouring Syria, Libya, Cilicia, nor yet Ethiopians and Arabs from more distant regions, but even Bactrians and Scythians and Persians and a few Indians, and all these help to make up the audience in your theatre and sit beside you on each occasion" "LacusCurtius • Dio Chrysostom — Discourse 32". penelope.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
- ISBN 9780674726468. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- ^ Thomas Mc Evilly "The shape of ancient thought", Allworth Press, New York, 2002, p. 383, quoting As.Res.III Asiatic Researches Or Transactions Vol. 3. 1799. p. 297.
- ISBN 9788120812574. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- JSTOR 25208047. Apud William Woodthorpe Tarn (1951). The Greeks in Bactria and India (2nd ed.). Cambridge: University Press. p. 370. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
- ISBN 9781909314122. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- ^ "Compareti - Buddhist Activity in Pre-Islamic Persia - Transoxiana 12". www.transoxiana.org. Archived from the original on 4 February 2019. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- ^ JSTOR 25208047.
- ISBN 9780674057777. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
- ISBN 9780791436837. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
- ISBN 9781351954310. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-537089-8. Archivedfrom the original on 27 December 2022. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
- INALCO
- ^ "Éric Volant, Culture et mort volontaire, quoted in". Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- ^ Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Philosophy, Anthony Preus, Rowman & Littlefield, 2015, p.184
- ISBN 9788120613331. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- ^ ISBN 9788120802728. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
- ^ Essénisme et Bouddhisme, André Dupont-Sommer, Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres Year 1980 124-4 pp.704-715 Archived 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "C'est l'Inde qui serait, selon nous, au départ de ce vaste courant monastique qui brilla d'un vif éclat durant environ trois siècles dans le judaïsme même" in Essénisme et Bouddhisme, André Dupont-Sommer, Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres Year 1980 124-4 pp. 698-715 p.710-711 Archived 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Ainsi s'était préparé le terrain où prit naissance le Christianisme, cette secte d'origine juive, essénienne ou essénisante, qui devait si vite et si puissamment conquérir une très grande partie du monde."in Essénisme et Bouddhisme, Dupont-Sommer, André, Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres Year 1980 124-4 pp. 698-715 p.715 Archived 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. 51.
- ISBN 9788172110284. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 23 September 2018.
- Encyclopaedia Iranica
- ^ Hultzsch 1925, p. xlii.
- ISBN 9780199087860. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2018.
- ^ "The word dipi appears in the Old Persian inscription of Darius I at Behistan (Column IV. 39) having the meaning inscription or "written document" in Indian History Congress (2007). Proceedings - Indian History Congress. p. 90. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2018.
- ISBN 978-9004174467. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
- ISBN 9781405154413. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
- ^ a b Valeri P. Yailenko, Les maximes delphiques d'Aï Khanoum et la formation de la doctrine du dharma d'Asoka, Dialogues d'histoire ancienne, Vol. 16, No.1, 1990 pp.239-256 Archived 12 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Henk Singor, Leiden University King Ashoka's Philanthropia Archived 28 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 9780486174501. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
- ISBN 9781615300631. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
- ISBN 9781400850525. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
- ISBN 9780883855409. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
- ^ Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer transl. David Bellos et al. London: The Harvill Press (1998): 395, Fig. 24.66
- ^ a b Singor, Henk (2014). King Ashoka's Philanthropia (PDF). p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
- ^ a b c d Salomon 1998, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Theo Damsteegt (1978). Epigraphical Hybrid Sanskrit. Brill Academic. pp. 209–211. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
- ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
- ^ Salomon 1998, p. 87 with footnotes.
- ^ Salomon 1998, p. 93.
- ISBN 9781400866328. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-691-17632-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
- ^ ISBN 9781400866328. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
- ISBN 9781400866328. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
- ISBN 9781400866328. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
- ^ Bopearachchi, Osmund (2016). "Review of C.I. Beckwith, Greek Buddha". Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2019.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Bronkhorst, Johannes (2016). How the Brahmins Won. Brill. pp. 483–489. Archived from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 4 September 2019.
- ^ a b c Yailenko, Les maximes delphiques d'Aï Khanoum et la formation de la doctrine du dhamma d'Asoka, 1990, p. 243 Archived 12 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Inscriptions of Asoka de D.C. Sircar p. 30 Archived 27 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Handbuch der Orientalistik de Kurt A. Behrendt p. 39 Archived 27 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
Sources
- Cunningham, Alexander (1877). Inscriptions of Asoka, Calcutta : Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing
- Dhammika, S. (1993). "The Edicts of King Asoka: An English Rendering", The Wheel Publication No. 386/387, Kandy Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, ISBN 955-24-0104-6
- Gombrich, Richard; Guruge, Ananda (1994). King Ashoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary studies, Kandy: Sri Lanka; Buddhist Publication Society, 1st edition, ISBN 9552400651
- Hultzsch, Eugen (1925). Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Mookerji, Radhakumud (1962). Aśoka (3rd ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.
- Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- Singh, Upinder (2008). "Chapter 7: Power and Piety: The Maurya Empire, c. 324-187 BCE". A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. New Delhi: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
- Le, Huu Phuoc (2010). Buddhist Architecture. Grafikol. ISBN 9780984404308.
Further reading
- Tieken, Herman. The Aśoka Inscriptions: Analysing a Corpus. India, Primus Books, 2023. ISBN 978-93-5572-568-4