Asian Americans
Jain, Zoroastrian, Tengrism, Shinto, and Chinese folk religion (Taoist and Confucian), Vietnamese folk religion[2] |
Asian Americans are
Chinese, Indian, and Filipino Americans make up the largest share of the Asian American population with 5 million, 4.3 million, and 4 million people respectively. These numbers equal 23%, 20%, and 18% of the total Asian American population, or 1.5% and 1.2% of the total U.S. population.[10]
Although migrants from Asia have been in parts of the contemporary United States since the 17th century, large-scale immigration did not begin until the mid-19th century. Nativist immigration laws during the 1880s–1920s excluded various Asian groups, eventually
Terminology
As with other
Prior to being included in the "Asian" category in the 1980s, many Americans of South Asian descent usually classified themselves as Caucasian or other.[21] Changing patterns of immigration and an extensive period of exclusion of Asian immigrants have resulted in demographic changes that have in turn affected the formal and common understandings of what defines Asian American. For example, since the removal of restrictive "national origins" quotas in 1965, the Asian American population has diversified greatly to include more of the peoples with ancestry from various parts of Asia.[22]
Today, "Asian American" is the accepted term for most formal purposes, such as government and academic research, although it is often shortened to Asian in common usage.[23] The most commonly used definition of Asian American is the U.S. Census Bureau definition, which includes all people with origins in the Far East, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.[8] This is chiefly because the census definitions determine many governmental classifications, notably for equal opportunity programs and measurements.[24]
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, "Asian person" in the United States is most often thought of as a person of East Asian descent.[25][26] In vernacular usage, "Asian" is usually used to refer to those of East or Southeast Asian descent, with South Asians not included as often.[27] This differs from the U.S. census definition[8][28] and the Asian American Studies departments in many universities consider all those of East, South, or Southeast Asian descent to be "Asian".[29]
Census definition
In the
In 1980 and before, census forms listed particular Asian ancestries as separate groups, along with white and black or negro.[33] Asian Americans had also been classified as "other".[34] In 1977, the federal Office of Management and Budget issued a directive requiring government agencies to maintain statistics on racial groups, including on "Asian or Pacific Islander".[35] By the 1990 census, "Asian or Pacific Islander (API)" was included as an explicit category, although respondents had to select one particular ancestry as a subcategory.[36] Beginning with the 2000 census, two separate categories were used: "Asian American" and "Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander".[37]
Debates and criticism
The definition of Asian American has variations that derive from the
In a PBS interview from 2004, a panel of Asian American writers discussed how some groups include people of Middle Eastern descent in the Asian American category.
Scholars have grappled with the accuracy, correctness, and usefulness of the term Asian American. The term "Asian" in Asian American most often comes under fire for only encompassing some of the diverse peoples of Asia, and for being considered a racial category instead of a non-racial "ethnic" category. This is namely due to the categorization of the racially different South Asians and East Asians as part of the same "race".[24] Furthermore, it has been noted that West Asians (whom are not considered "Asian" under the U.S. census) share some cultural similarities with Indians but very little with East Asians, with the latter two groups being classified as "Asian".[46] Scholars have also found it difficult to determine why Asian Americans are considered a "race" while Americans of Hispanic and Latino heritage are a non-racial "ethnic group", given how the category of Asian Americans similarly comprises people with diverse origins.[47] However, it has been argued that South Asians and East Asians can be "justifiably" grouped together because of Buddhism's origins in South Asia.[48]
In contrast, leading social sciences and humanities scholars of race and Asian American identity point out that because of the racial constructions in the United States, including the social attitudes toward race and those of Asian ancestry, Asian Americans have a "shared racial experience".[49] Because of this shared experience, the term Asian American is argued as still being a useful panethnic category because of the similarity of some experiences among Asian Americans, including stereotypes specific to people in this category.[49] Despite this, others have stated that many Americans do not treat all Asian Americans equally, highlighting the fact that "Asian American" is generally synonymous with people of East Asian descent, thereby excluding people of Southeast Asian and South Asian origin.[50] Some South and Southeast Asian Americans may not identify with the Asian American label, instead describing themselves as "Brown Asians" or simply "Brown", due to the perceived racial and cultural differences between them and East Asian Americans.[51][52][53]
Demographics
The demographics of Asian Americans describe a heterogeneous group of people in the United States who can trace their ancestry to one or more countries in East, South, or Southeast Asia.[54] Because they compose 7.3% of the entire U.S. population, the diversity of the group is often disregarded in media and news discussions of "Asians" or of "Asian Americans".[55] While there are some commonalities across ethnic subgroups, there are significant differences among different Asian ethnicities that are related to each group's history.[56] The Asian American population is greatly urbanized, with nearly three-quarters of them living in metropolitan areas with population greater than 2.5 million.[57] As of July 2015[update], California had the largest population of Asian Americans of any state, and Hawaii was the only state where Asian Americans were the majority of the population.[58]
The demographics of Asian Americans can further be subdivided into, as listed in alphabetical order:
- Macanese Americans, Mongolian Americans, Ryukyuan Americans, Taiwanese Americans, and Tibetan Americans.
- Indo-Fijian Americans, Maldivian Americans, Nepalese Americans, Pakistani Americans, and Sri Lankan Americans.
- Southeast Asian Americans, including Bruneian Americans, Burmese Americans, Cambodian Americans, Filipino Americans, Hmong Americans, Indonesian Americans, Iu Mien Americans, Karen Americans, Laotian Americans, Malaysian Americans, Singaporean Americans, Thai Americans, Timorese Americans, and Vietnamese Americans.
This grouping is by country of origin before immigration to the United States, and not necessarily by ethnicity, as for example (nonexclusive), Singaporean Americans may be of Chinese, Indian, or Malay descent.
Asian Americans include multiracial or mixed race persons with origins or ancestry in both the above groups and another race, or multiple of the above groups.
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Language
In 2010, there were 2.8 million people (age 5 and older) who spoke one of the Chinese languages at home;[59] after the Spanish language, it is the third most common language in the United States.[59] Other sizable Asian languages are Hindustani (Hindi/Urdu), Tagalog, Vietnamese, and Korean, with all four having more than 1 million speakers in the United States.[59]
In 2012,
The
Sexuality
According to a Gallup survey conducted from June to September 2012, 4.3 percent of Asian Americans self identify as LGBT, compared to 3.4% of the general American population. This makes the Asian-American population disproportionately over-represented within the LGBT community.[66]
In a Gallup survey conducted in 2017, 4.9 percent of Asian Americans identified as LGBT, representing the second-highest growth of LGBT representation in the United States, behind Hispanic Americans.[67]
Religion
According to a Pew Research Center survey conducted from July 5, 2022, to January 27, 2023, the religious landscape of Asian Americans is both diverse and evolving.[68] The survey reveals that 32% of Asian Americans are religiously unaffiliated, up from 26% in 2012. Christianity remains the largest faith group among Asian Americans at 34%, although it has seen an 8% decline since 2012.[69]
Christianity
As of the most recent Pew Research Center survey, approximately 34% of Asian American adults identify as Christians, a decrease from 42% in 2012. This decline is especially notable among Protestants, who currently constitute 16% of the Asian American population, down from 22% in 2012.[70] Catholics, on the other hand, have maintained a relatively stable presence, making up 17% of the Asian American adult population, nearly unchanged from 19% in 2012. Beyond formal religious identification, an additional 18% of Asian Americans report a cultural or familial closeness to Christianity. This means that about 51% of Asian Americans express some connection to the Christian faith.[70]
Filipino and Korean Americans display particularly strong affiliations with Christianity. Among Filipino Americans, 74% identify as Christian, and when considering those who feel culturally close to Christianity, this figure rises to 90%. Among Korean Americans, 59% identify as Christians, and 81% express some connection to the faith. Most Filipino Americans are Catholic (57%), whereas Korean Americans tend to be Protestant, with 34% identifying as evangelical Protestants.[70]
Unaffiliated
Religious disaffiliation among Asian Americans has been steadily increasing. 32% of Asian Americans identify as religiously unaffiliated, which encompasses individuals identifying as atheist, agnostic, or "nothing in particular".[71] This represents a growth from 26% in 2012. The majority of these individuals describe their religion as "nothing in particular" rather than explicitly identifying as atheist or agnostic. Despite a lack of formal religious affiliation, a significant number of religiously unaffiliated Asian Americans maintain a connection to various religious or philosophical traditions due to cultural or ancestral reasons. In total, only 12% of Asian Americans report having no connection to any religious or philosophical tradition.[71]
Among Asian Americans, Chinese and Japanese Americans are more likely to be religiously unaffiliated, with 56% and 47% respectively identifying as such. Both groups are also more likely to feel a cultural or ancestral connection to a faith tradition despite their lack of formal religious affiliation. Conversely, Indian, Filipino, and Vietnamese Americans are considerably less likely to be religiously unaffiliated and more likely to express some form of connection to a religious tradition.[71]
Religious trends
The percentage of Christians among Asian Americans has sharply declined since the 1990s, chiefly as a result of large-scale immigration from countries in which Christianity is a minority religion (China and India in particular). In 1990, 63% of the Asian Americans identified as Christians, while in 2001 only 43% did.[72] This development has been accompanied by a rise in traditional Asian religions, with the people identifying with them doubling during the same decade.[73]
History
Early immigration
Because Asian Americans or their ancestors immigrated to the United States from many different countries, each Asian American population has its own unique immigration history.[74]
Filipinos have been in the territories that would become the United States since the 16th century.[75] In 1635, an "East Indian" is listed in Jamestown, Virginia;[76] preceding wider settlement of Indian immigrants on the East Coast in the 1790s and the West Coast in the 1800s.[77] In 1763, Filipinos established the small settlement of Saint Malo, Louisiana, after fleeing mistreatment aboard Spanish ships.[78] Since there were no Filipino women with them, these "Manilamen", as they were known, married Cajun and indigenous women.[79] The first Japanese person to come to the United States, and stay any significant period of time was Nakahama Manjirō who reached the East Coast in 1841, and Joseph Heco became the first Japanese American naturalized U.S. citizen in 1858.[80]
Chinese sailors first came to Hawaii in 1789,[81] a few years after Captain James Cook came upon the island. Many settled and married Hawaiian women. Most Chinese, Korean and Japanese immigrants in Hawaii or San Francisco arrived in the 19th century as laborers to work on sugar plantations or construction place.[82] There were thousands of Asians in Hawaii when it was annexed to the United States in 1898.[83] Later, Filipinos also came to work as laborers, attracted by the job opportunities, although they were limited.[84] Ryukyuans would start migrating to Hawaii in 1900.[85]
Large-scale migration from Asia to the United States began when Chinese immigrants arrived on the
Exclusion era
Under United States law during this period, particularly the Naturalization Act of 1790, only "free white persons" were eligible to naturalize as American citizens. Ineligibility for citizenship prevented Asian immigrants from accessing a variety of rights, such as voting.[89] Bhicaji Balsara became the first known Indian-born person to gain naturalized U.S. citizenship.[90] Balsara's naturalization was not the norm but an exception; in a pair of cases, Ozawa v. United States (1922) and United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923), the Supreme Court upheld the racial qualification for citizenship and ruled that Asians were not "white persons". Second-generation Asian Americans, however, could become U.S. citizens due to the birthright citizenship clause of the Fourteenth Amendment; this guarantee was confirmed as applying regardless of race or ancestry by the Supreme Court in United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898).[91]
From the 1880s to the 1920s, the United States passed laws inaugurating an era of exclusion of Asian immigrants. Although the exact number of Asian immigrants was small compared to that of immigrants from other regions, much of it was concentrated in the
World War II
President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, resulting in the internment of Japanese Americans, among others. Over 100,000 people of Japanese descent, mostly on the West Coast, were forcibly removed, in an action later considered ineffective and racist.[95] Japanese Americans were kept isolated in military camps just because of their race including children, old person and young generation. 'Issei:The first generation' and 'Children of the camps' are two great documentaries to represent the situation of Japanese American's during World War ll.
Postwar immigration
World War II-era legislation and judicial rulings[
The number of Asian immigrants to the United States "grew from 491,000 in 1960 to about 12.8 million in 2014, representing a 2,597 percent increase."[97] Asian Americans were the fastest-growing racial group between 2000 and 2010.[74][98] By 2012, more immigrants came from Asia than from Latin America.[99] In 2015, Pew Research Center found that from 2010 to 2015 more immigrants came from Asia than from Latin America, and that since 1965; Asians have made up a quarter of all immigrants to the United States.[100]
Asians have made up an increasing proportion of the foreign-born Americans: "In 1960, Asians represented 5 percent of the U.S. foreign-born population; by 2014, their share grew to 30 percent of the nation's 42.4 million immigrants."
Asian American movement
Prior to the 1960s, Asian immigrants and their descendants had organized and agitated for social or political purposes according to their particular ethnicity: Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Korean, or Asian Indian. The Asian American movement (a term coined by the Japanese American
Increasingly Asian American students demanded university-level research and teaching into Asian history and interaction with the United States. They support multiculturalism and support affirmative action but oppose colleges' quota on Asian students viewed as discriminatory.[104][105][106]
Notable contributions
Arts and entertainment
Asian Americans have been involved in the
More recently, young Asian American comedians and film-makers have found an outlet on YouTube allowing them to gain a strong and loyal fanbase among their fellow Asian Americans.[108] There have been several Asian American-centric television shows in American media, beginning with Mr. T and Tina in 1976, and as recent as the TV series Fresh Off the Boat in 2015.[109]
In the Pacific, American beatboxer of Hawaii Chinese descent Jason Tom co-founded the Human Beatbox Academy to perpetuate the art of beatboxing through outreach performances, speaking engagements and workshops in Honolulu, the westernmost and southernmost major U.S. city of the 50th U.S. state of Hawaii.[110][111][112][113][114][115]
Business
This section is missing information about the history of the subject.(August 2009) |
When Asian Americans were largely excluded from labor markets in the 19th century, they started their own businesses. They have started convenience and grocery stores, professional offices such as medical and law practices, laundries, restaurants, beauty-related ventures, hi-tech companies, and many other kinds of enterprises, becoming very successful and influential in American society. They have dramatically expanded their involvement across the American economy. Asian Americans have been disproportionately successful in the hi-tech sectors of California's Silicon Valley, as evidenced by the Goldsea 100 Compilation of America's Most Successful Asian Entrepreneurs.[116]
Compared to their population base, Asian Americans today are well represented in the professional sector and tend to earn higher wages.[117] The Goldsea compilation of Notable Asian American Professionals show that many have come to occupy high positions at leading U.S. corporations, including a disproportionately large number as Chief Marketing Officers.[118]
Asian Americans have made major contributions to the American economy. In 2012, there were just under 486,000 Asian American-owned businesses in the U.S., which together employed more than 3.6 million workers, generating $707.6 billion in total receipts and sales, with annual payrolls of $112 billion. In 2015, Asian American and Pacific Islander households had $455.6 billion in spending power (comparable to the annual revenue of Walmart) and made tax contributions of $184.0 billion.[119]
Fashion designer and mogul
Government and politics
Asian Americans have a high level of political incorporation in terms of their actual voting population. Since 1907, Asian Americans have been active at the national level and have had multiple officeholders at local, state, and national levels. As more Asian Americans have been elected to public office, they have had a growing impact on foreign relations of the United States, immigration, international trade, and other topics.[122] The first Asian American to be elected to the United States Congress was Dalip Singh Saund in 1957.
The highest ranked Asian American to serve in the United States Congress was Senator and
The first Asian American member of the U.S. cabinet was
There have been roughly "about a half-dozen viable Asian-American candidates" to ever run for
An article by the U.S. Agricultural Department posted on their website is a great example, stating that the birthright citizenship law passed in the U.S. Supreme Court due to a year-long battle between Wong Kim Ark (a Chinese immigrant born in San Francisco) and the U.S. Department of Justice.
King Bhumibol Adulyadej (1927–2016) was the first monarch to be born in the United States. He reigned the throne of Thailand from 1946 to 2016.
Voting behavior
Asian Americans were once a strong constituency for Republicans. In 1992, George H.W. Bush won 55% of Asian voters.[130] However, by 2020, Asian Americans shifted to supporting Democrats, giving Joe Biden 70% support to Donald Trump's 29%.[131] Ethnic background and country of origin have determined Asian American voting behavior in recent elections, with Indian Americans[132] and to a lesser extent Chinese Americans being strong constituencies for Democrats, and Vietnamese Americans being a strong constituency for Republicans.[133]
Sixty eight percent of Filipinos surveyed for a 2023 survey said they identified politically with the Democratic Party and voted for Democrats.[134]
Journalism
Military
Since the
Science and technology
Asian Americans have made many notable contributions to science and technology. In the technological sector, Asian Americans are the most influential. According to an article by website ideas.ted.com, over 40% of the high-tech companies are established by highly skilled Asian American people. It also states that AAPI (Asian American Pacific Islanders) hasbeen contributing to remarkable technological innovations and scientific discoveries. For example, the co-founders of Yahoo, Zoom, YouTube, and LinkedIn are Asian American contributors. Intury In the 21st century, Asian Americans are building connections with other Asian countries, such as China, Korea, Bangladesh, and India. Another example could be the CEO of a multi-billion company, originally from India,Satya Nadella is an example of the contribution of Asian Americans in the technological fields. Asian Americans have a vital contribution not only in technology, and education but also in political aspects. An article by the U.S. Agricultural Department posted on their website is a great example, stating that the birthright citizenship law passed in the U.S. Supreme Court due to a year-long battle between Wong Kim Ark (a Chinese immigrant born in San Francisco) and the U.S. Department of Justice. Kamala Harris, daughter of an Indian immigrant became the firstAsian American vice president of the United States in 2021.
Sports
Asian Americans have contributed to sports in the United States through much of the 20th century. Some of the most notable contributions include Olympic sports, but also in professional sports, particularly in the post-World War II years. As the Asian American population grew in the late 20th century, Asian American contributions expanded to more sports. Examples of female Asian American athletes include Michelle Kwan, Chloe Kim, Miki Gorman, Mirai Nagasu, and Maia Shibutani.[138] Examples of male Asian American athletes include Jeremy Lin, Tiger Woods, Hines Ward, Richard Park, and Nathan Adrian.
Cultural influence
In recognition of the unique culture, traditions, and history of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, the
Health and medicine
Country of origin |
Proportion of total in U.S. | ||
---|---|---|---|
IMGs[142] | IDGs[143] | INGs[144] | |
India | 19.9% (47,581) | 25.8% | 1.3% |
Philippines | 8.8% (20,861) | 11.0% | 50.2% |
Pakistan | 4.8% (11,330) | 2.9% | |
South Korea | 2.1% (4,982) | 3.2% | 1.0% |
China | 2.0% (4,834) | 3.2% | |
Hong Kong | 1.2% | ||
Israel | 1.0% |
Asian immigrants are also changing the American medical landscape through increasing number of Asian medical practitioners in the United States. Beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, the U.S. government invited a number of foreign physicians particularly from India and the Philippines to address the shortage of physicians in rural and medically underserved urban areas. The trend in importing foreign medical practitioners, however, became a long-term solution as U.S. schools failed to produce enough health care providers to match the increasing population. Amid decreasing interest in medicine among American college students due to high educational costs and high rates of job dissatisfaction, loss of morale, stress, and lawsuits, Asian American immigrants maintained a supply of healthcare practitioners for millions of Americans. It is documented that Asian American international medical graduates including highly skilled guest workers using the J1 Visa program for medical workers, tend to serve in health professions shortage areas (HPSA) and specialties that are not filled by US medical graduates especially primary care and rural medicine.[145][146] In 2020, of all the medical personnel in the United States, 17% of doctors were Asian Americans, 9% of physician assistants were Asian American, and more than 9% of nurses were Asian Americans.[147]
Nearly one in four Asian Americans are likely to use common alternative medicine.[148] This includes traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda.[148][149] Due to the prevalence of usage, engaging with Asian American populations, through the practitioners of these common alternative medicines, can lead to an increase of usage of underused medical procedures.[150]
Education
Ethnicity | High school graduation rate, 2004 |
Bachelor's degree or higher, 2010 |
---|---|---|
Bangladeshis | not reported | 49.6% |
Cambodian | not reported | 14.5% |
Chinese | 80.8% | 51.8% |
Filipinos | 90.8% | 48.1% |
Indian | 90.2% | 70.7% |
Indonesians | not reported | 48.7% |
Japanese | 93.4% | 47.3% |
Koreans | 90.2% | 52.9% |
Laotians | not reported | 12.1% |
Pakistanis | 87.4% | 55.1% |
Taiwanese | not reported | 73.7% |
Vietnamese | 70.0% | 26.3% |
Total U.S. population | 83.9% | 27.9% |
Sources: 2004[151][152][153] and 2010[154] |
Among America's major racial categories, Asian Americans have the highest educational qualifications. This varies, however, for individual ethnic groups. For example, a 2010 study of all Asian American adults found 42% have at least a college degree, but only 16% of Vietnamese Americans and only 5% for Laotians and Cambodians.[155] It has been noted, however, that 2008 US Census statistics put the bachelor's degree attainment rate of Vietnamese Americans at 26%, which is not very different from the rate of 27% for all Americans.[156] Census data from 2010 show 50% of Asian adults have earned at least a bachelor's degree, compared to 28% for all Americans,[157] and 34% for non-Hispanic whites.[158] Taiwanese Americans have some of the highest education rates, with nearly 74% having attained at least a bachelor's degree in 2010.[154] as of December 2012[update] Asian Americans made up twelve to eighteen percent of the student population at Ivy League schools, larger than their share of the population.[159][a] For example, the Harvard College Class of 2023 admitted students were 25% Asian American.[164]
In the years immediately preceding 2012, 61% of Asian American adult immigrants have a bachelor or higher level college education.[74]
In August 2020, the U.S. Justice Department argued that Yale University discriminated against Asian candidates on the basis of their race, a charge the university denied.[165][166]
Popular media
Asian American culture is referenced in a number of mainstream forms such as literature, TV shows, and movies. Crazy Rich Asians, directed by John M. Chu, follows Rachel Chu, a Chinese-American economics professor. Min Jin Lee's novel, Pachinko, is an intergenerational story that tells the story of Koreans who immigrate to Japan. Some of the popular Asian American plays are 'Chickencoop Chinaman', ' And the Soul Shall Dance', ' Paper Angels', ' Yellow fever' and many more.
Identity
As of year 2023, a recent survey showed one out of five respondents said they do not identify as Asian to non-Asians. Most immigrants identify as Asian compared to American-born Asian Americans. People under the age 18 are more likely not to identify as Asian. People over the age of 65 are more likely to identify as Asian.[134][167]
Social and political issues
Media portrayal
Because
Bamboo ceiling
This concept appears to elevate Asian Americans by portraying them as an elite group of successful, highly educated, intelligent, and wealthy individuals, but it can also be considered an overly narrow and overly one-dimensional portrayal of Asian Americans, leaving out other human qualities such as vocal leadership, negative emotions, risk taking, ability to learn from mistakes, and desire for creative expression.
The bamboo ceiling is defined as a combination of individual, cultural, and organisational factors that impede Asian Americans' career progress inside organizations. Since then, a variety of sectors (including nonprofits, universities, the government) have discussed the impact of the ceiling as it relates to Asians and the challenges they face. As described by Anne Fisher, the "bamboo ceiling" refers to the processes and barriers that serve to exclude Asians and American people of Asian descent from executive positions on the basis of subjective factors such as "lack of leadership potential" and "lack of communication skills" that cannot actually be explained by job performance or qualifications.
Illegal immigration
In 2012, there were 1.3 million Asian Americans; and for those awaiting visas, there were lengthy backlogs with over 450,000 Filipinos, over 325,000 Indians, over 250,000 Vietnamese, and over 225,000 Chinese awaiting visas.
Due to the stereotype of Asian Americans being successful as a group and having the lowest crime rates in the United States, public attention to illegal immigration is mostly focused on those from Mexico and Latin America while leaving out Asians.[180] Asians are the second largest racial/ethnic alien immigrant group in the U.S. behind Hispanics and Latinos.[181] While the majority of Asian immigrants immigrate legally to the United States,[182] up to 15% of Asian immigrants immigrate without legal documents.[183]
Race-based violence
Asian Americans have been the targets of violence based on their race and or ethnicity. This violence includes, but is not limited to, such events as the
Even when it did not manifest as violence, contempt against Asian Americans was reflected in aspects of popular culture such as the playground chant "Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees".[193]
After the
Recent waves of immigration of Asian Americans to largely African American neighborhoods have led to cases of severe racial tension.[202] Acts of large-scale violence against Asian American students by their black classmates have been reported in multiple cities.[203] In October 2008, 30 black students chased and attacked 5 Asian students at South Philadelphia High School,[204] and a similar attack on Asian students occurred at the same school one year later, prompting a protest by Asian students in response.[205]
Asian-owned businesses have been a frequent target of tensions between black and Asian Americans. During the 1992 Los Angeles riots, more than 2000 Korean-owned businesses were looted or burned by groups of African Americans.
During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, concern has grown due to an increase in anti-Asian sentiment in the United States.[213][214] In March 2020, President Donald Trump called the disease "China Virus" and "Kung-Flu", based on its origin; in response organizations such as Asian Americans Advancing Justice and Western States Center, stated that doing so will increase anti-Asian sentiment and violence.[215] Vox wrote that the Trump Administration's use of the terms "China Virus", "Kung-Flu", and "Wuhan virus" would lead to an increase in xenophobia.[216] The disease naming controversy occurred at a time when the Chinese Foreign Ministry was claiming that the disease originated in the United States.[217] Violent acts, relating to the disease, against Asian Americans have been documented mostly in New York, California, and elsewhere.[214][218] As of December 31, 2020, there were 259 reports of anti-Asian incidents in New York reported to Stop AAPI Hate.[219] As of March 2021, there have been more than 3800 anti-Asian racist incidents.[220] A notable incident was the 2021 Atlanta spa shootings, a fatal attack in which six of the eight casualties were of Asian descent. The shooter reportedly said "I'm going to kill all Asians".[221]
Racial stereotypes
Until the late 20th century, the term "Asian American" was mostly adopted by activists, while the average person who was of Asian ancestry identified with his or her specific ethnicity.
Stereotypes of Asians have largely been collectively internalized by society and most of the repercussions of these stereotypes are negative for Asian Americans and Asian immigrants in daily interactions,
A study has indicated that most non-Asian Americans generally do not differentiate between Asian Americans who are of different ethnicities.[226] Stereotypes of Chinese Americans and Asian Americans are nearly identical.[227] A 2002 survey of Americans' attitudes toward Asian Americans and Chinese Americans indicated that 24% of the respondents disapprove of intermarriage with an Asian American, second only to African Americans; 23% would be uncomfortable supporting an Asian American presidential candidate, compared to 15% for an African American, 14% for a woman and 11% for a Jew; 17% would be upset if a substantial number of Asian Americans moved into their neighborhood; 25% had somewhat or very negative attitude toward Chinese Americans in general.[228] The study did find several positive perceptions of Chinese Americans: strong family values (91%); honesty as business people (77%); high value on education (67%).[227]
There is a widespread perception that Asian Americans are not "American" but are instead "perpetual foreigners".[228][229][230] Asian Americans often report being asked the question, "Where are you really from?" by other Americans, regardless of how long they or their ancestors have lived in United States and been a part of its society.[231] Many Asian Americans are themselves not immigrants but rather born in the United States. Many East Asian Americans are asked if they are Chinese or Japanese, an assumption based on major groups of past immigrants.[229][232]
Discrimination against Asians and Asian Americans increased with the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, according to a study done at Washington State University (WSU) and published in Stigma and Health.[233] The NYPD reported a 1,900% increase in hate crimes motivated by anti-Asian sentiment in 2020, largely due to the virus origins in Wuhan, China.[234][235]
According to a poll done in 2022, 33 percent of Americans believe Asian Americans are "more loyal to their country of origin" than the US while 21 percent falsely believe Asian Americans are at least "partially responsible" for the COVID-19 pandemic.[236] Additionally, only 29 percent of Asian Americans believe they "completely agree" with the statement that they feel they belong and are accepted in the US, while 71 percent say they are discriminated in the US.[236]
Model minority
Asian Americans are sometimes characterized as a model minority in the United States[237] because many of their cultures encourage a strong work ethic, a respect for elders, a high degree of professional and academic success, a high valuation of family, education and religion.[238] Statistics such as high household income and low incarceration rate,[239] low rates of many diseases, and higher than average life expectancy are also discussed as positive aspects of Asian Americans.[240]
The implicit advice is that the other minorities should stop protesting and emulate the Asian American work ethic and devotion to higher education. Some critics say the depiction replaces biological racism with cultural racism, and should be dropped.[241] According to The Washington Post, "the idea that Asian Americans are distinct among minority groups and immune to the challenges faced by other people of color is a particularly sensitive issue for the community, which has recently fought to reclaim its place in social justice conversations with movements like #ModelMinorityMutiny."[242]
The model minority concept can also affect Asians' public education.
The model minority concept can be emotionally damaging to some Asian Americans, particularly since they are expected to live up to those peers who fit the stereotype.[248] Studies have shown that some Asian Americans suffer from higher rates of stress, depression, mental illnesses, and suicides in comparison to other groups,[249] indicating that the pressures to achieve and live up to the model minority image may take a mental and psychological toll on some Asian Americans.[250] The American Psychological Association has published a paper relying on 2007 data that takes issue with what is said are myths about the suicide rates of Asian Americans.[251]
Alongside mental and psychological tolls that the model minority concept has on Asian Americans,[250] they are also faced with the repercussions that it has on physical health and the desire for individuals to seek medical care more specifically cancer screening or treatment. Asian Americans, between the other racial/ethnic groups in the United States, are the only group with the leading cause of death being cancer while having significantly low rates of cancer screenings.[252] Different pressures like alienation if diagnosed or the desire to conform to stereotypes of the image of a healthy lifestyle[253] can deter individuals from seeking cancer screenings or treatment before the onset of symptoms.[254]
The "model minority" stereotype fails to distinguish between different ethnic groups with different histories.[255] When divided up by ethnicity, it can be seen that the economic and academic successes supposedly enjoyed by Asian Americans are concentrated into a few ethnic groups.[256] Cambodians, Hmong, and Laotians (and to a lesser extent, Vietnamese) all have relatively low achievement rates, possibly due to their refugee status, and the fact that they are non-voluntary immigrants.[257]
Social and economic disparities
In 2015, Asian American earnings were found to exceed all other racial groups when all Asian ethnic groups are grouped as a whole.
There are major disparities that exist among Asian Americans when specific ethnic groups are examined. For example, in 2012, Asian Americans had the highest educational attainment level of any racial demographic in the country.[74] Yet, there are many sub groups of Asian Americans who suffer in terms of education with some sub groups showing a high rate of dropping out of school or lacking a college education.[264][265][267] This occurs in terms of household income as well; in 2008 Asian Americans had the highest median household income overall of any racial demographic,[268][269] while there were Asian sub-groups who had average median incomes lower than both the U.S. average and non-Hispanic Whites.[264] In 2014, data released by the United States Census Bureau revealed that five Asian American ethnic groups are in the top ten lowest earning ethnicities in terms of per capita income in all of the United States.[270]
The Asian American groups that have low educational attainment and high rates of poverty both in average individual and median income are Bhutanese Americans,[271][272] Bangladeshi Americans,[260][271][273] Cambodian Americans,[263][265] Burmese Americans,[264] Nepali Americans,[274] Hmong Americans,[260][265][271] and Laotian Americans.[265] This affects Vietnamese Americans as well, albeit to a lesser degree, as early 21st-century immigration from Vietnam are almost entirely not from refugee backgrounds.[275] These individual ethnicities experience social issues within their communities, some specific to their individual communities themselves. Issues such as suicide, crime, and mental illness.[276] Other issues experienced include deportation, and poor physical health.[277] Within the Bhutanese American community, it has been documented that there are issues of suicide greater than the world's average.[278] Cambodian Americans, some of whom immigrated as refugees, are subject to deportation.[279] Crime and gang violence are common social issues among Asian Americans of refugee backgrounds such as Cambodian, Laotian, Hmong, and Vietnamese Americans.[280]
See also
- Middle Eastern Americans
- Central Asians in the United States
- Amerasian
- Asian American activism
- Asian American and Pacific Islander Policy Research Consortium
- Asian American studies
- Asian Americans in New York City
- Asian Pacific American
- Asian pride
- Category:Racially motivated violence against Asian Americans
- Hyphenated American
- Jade Ribbon Campaign
- Index of articles related to Asian Americans
- Asian Americans in California
Notes
References
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It is a political term used by Asian-American activists and enhanced by governmental treatment. In terms of culture, physical characteristics, and pre-migrant historical experiences, I have argued, South and East Asians do not have commonalities and as a result, they do not maintain close ties in terms friendship, intermarriage or sharing neighborhoods
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But American culture tends not to think of all regions in Asia as equally Asian. A quick Google search of "Asian food nearby" is likely to call up Chinese or Japanese restaurants, but not Indian or Filipino. Years after someone posted a thread on College Confidential, a popular college admissions forum, titled "Do Indians count as Asians?" the SAT in 2016 tweaked its race categories, explaining to test-takers that "Asian" did include "Indian subcontinent and Philippines origin."
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Less than ten years later, Congress passed the Immigration Act of February 5, 1917 (commonly known as the Barred Zone Act), which enumerated the classes of people who were ineligible to enter the United States. Among them were those who were natives of a zone defined by latitude and longitude the geographic area identified became known as the Asiatic Barred Zone, and the act clearly became the Asiatic Barred Zone Act. Under the Asiatic Barred Zone Act, the only Asians allowed entry into the United States were Japanese and Filipinos.
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External links
- Asian American Data Links — demographic information and reports from the U.S. Census Bureau
- UCLA Asian American Studies Center